Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 7 An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
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Summary
Vijayanagara, meaning “City of Victory,” was both an empire and a city founded in the fourteenth century. At its peak, it stretched from the Krishna River in the north to the southernmost part of India. The empire fell in 1565 after a major battle, and the city was eventually abandoned, though people continued to remember it as Hampi, named after the local goddess Pampadevi. The ruins of the city were rediscovered in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian working for the East India Company. He relied on local priests’ accounts and inscriptions to gather information. By the mid-nineteenth century, photographs and epigraphic studies helped scholars reconstruct its history.
The empire was founded by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, in 1336. Its rulers competed with the Deccan Sultanates and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control over fertile lands and trade routes. Despite these conflicts, there was an exchange of ideas, particularly in architecture. Vijayanagara rulers adopted and developed techniques from different regions. The empire also had a strong trade network, dealing in horses, spices, textiles, and precious stones. Merchants from Arabia, Central Asia, and later the Portuguese played key roles in commerce. The wealth from trade contributed significantly to the empire’s prosperity.
The empire had three major ruling dynasties: the Sangama, Saluva, and Tuluva. The most famous ruler was Krishnadeva Raya, who reigned from 1509 to 1529. His rule saw territorial expansion, economic growth, and remarkable architectural achievements. He defeated several rival kingdoms, secured control over important regions, and patronized temple construction. His death led to internal struggles, and by 1565, the empire faced a major defeat at the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) against a coalition of Deccan Sultanates. The city was sacked and left in ruins, with the focus of power shifting elsewhere.
The empire had a unique administrative structure. Military chiefs, known as nayakas, controlled different regions and maintained their own armies. They collected taxes and paid tribute to the king. However, over time, they became more independent, contributing to the empire’s decline.
Vijayanagara was a well-planned city with distinct zones. The royal center housed palaces and government buildings. The sacred center contained important temples like the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples. These temples featured large gateways called gopurams and richly decorated pillars. The urban core had markets, residential areas, and roads connecting different parts of the city. Water management was advanced, with tanks, canals, and reservoirs ensuring a steady supply.
One of the grandest structures was the Mahanavami Dibba, a raised platform where the king performed ceremonies during the festival of Mahanavami (Dussehra). This festival involved animal sacrifices, dances, military parades, and the display of royal wealth and power. Foreign travelers who visited the city, including Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz from Portugal, described its grandeur, thriving markets, and the abundance of goods.
After the empire’s decline, regional rulers, known as the nayakas, continued Vijayanagara’s architectural traditions. Even though the city was abandoned, its influence persisted in later temple and palace constructions. Today, the ruins of Hampi are a UNESCO World Heritage site, offering insight into a once-great civilization.
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Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two centuries? In what way do you think they would have complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple?
Answer: The ruins at Hampi were first brought to light in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian, who prepared the first survey map of the site. He gathered initial information from the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. From 1856, photographers began recording the monuments, allowing scholars to study them. Epigraphists started collecting inscriptions from 1836, and historians later collated this information with accounts of foreign travellers and literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit. Archaeological surveys, mapping techniques, and conservation efforts, including those by the Archaeological Survey of India, have further contributed to understanding the site. These studies complemented the priests’ oral traditions by providing tangible evidence through inscriptions, architecture, and historical documentation.
2. How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?
Answer: The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra, which flows in a north-easterly direction. Several streams flowed down from the surrounding granite hills into the river. Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes. Since this was one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements were made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city. The most important such tank was built in the early fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre.” One of the most prominent waterworks was the Hiriya canal, which drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core.” This canal was built by the Sangama dynasty.
3. What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city?
Answer: The advantage of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area was that it ensured food security during times of war and sieges, as the defenders would not be starved into submission. Normally, rulers built large granaries within fortified areas, but the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself. This meant that even in prolonged conflicts, they had access to fresh food supplies.
The disadvantage, however, was that it required an extensive and costly defense system to enclose both the city and its agricultural hinterland. Constructing such large fortifications demanded significant resources, labor, and time. Additionally, maintaining these fortifications and ensuring the safety of the agricultural lands within them could have been challenging, especially if enemy forces attempted to breach the outer defenses.
4. What do you think was the significance of the rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba?
Answer: Rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October, known as Dussehra (in northern India), Durga Puja (in Bengal), and Navaratri or Mahanavami (in peninsular India). The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power, and suzerainty on this occasion. The ceremonies performed included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings, marked the occasion. These ceremonies were imbued with deep symbolic meanings. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field. On this occasion, the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.
5. Fig. 7.33 is an illustration of another pillar from the Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs? What are the animals shown? Why do you think they are depicted? Describe the human figures shown.
Answer: The pillar from the Virupaksha temple features several floral motifs, which are intricately carved into the design. The animals depicted include a rearing horse, which is highly detailed with ornamental patterns. Horses were commonly shown in Vijayanagara art as symbols of power, cavalry strength, and royal authority. The human figures carved on the pillar include a deity seated on a throne, possibly a form of Vishnu or Shiva, and other figures engaged in various activities. Some figures appear to be musicians or attendants, while others seem to be warriors or divine beings. These depictions reflect the religious and royal themes commonly represented in Vijayanagara temple architecture.
Short essay-type answers
6. Discuss whether the term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.
Answer: The term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the southwestern part of Vijayanagara as it housed numerous structures associated with the ruling elite. This area contained over 60 temples, which highlights the rulers’ patronage of religious institutions. These temples were crucial for legitimizing their authority and divine association. Additionally, there were about 30 palace complexes, which were large and distinct from religious structures, indicating their use as administrative and residential spaces for the ruling class.
One of the most significant structures in the royal centre was the Mahanavami Dibba, a massive platform used for state rituals and celebrations, including the Mahanavami festival. This structure symbolized the king’s power and authority, reinforcing the idea of the area as a hub of royal activities. The audience hall, another key structure, was a high platform with pillars, possibly used for royal gatherings and administrative functions. These buildings underline the political and ceremonial importance of the royal centre.
Furthermore, the architectural style of buildings such as the Lotus Mahal and the so-called elephant stables reflect Indo-Islamic influences, demonstrating the cosmopolitan nature of Vijayanagara’s elite. The presence of fortifications around the royal centre further emphasizes its exclusive and significant role within the city. Unlike the sacred centre, which was more publicly accessible, the royal centre was a restricted area primarily for the use of the king, his court, and high-ranking officials.
Given its concentration of administrative, residential, and ceremonial structures linked to the Vijayanagara rulers, the term “royal centre” accurately captures its function and significance in the city.
7. What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them?
Answer: The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables in Vijayanagara reflects the grandeur, cosmopolitanism, and strategic vision of the rulers who commissioned them. The Lotus Mahal, a unique structure in the royal centre, exhibits a blend of Indo-Islamic architectural elements, particularly in its arches and domes. These features indicate that the Vijayanagara rulers were open to cultural influences from the Deccan Sultanates and other contemporary powers. The building’s function is not clearly established, but it is suggested that it might have been a council chamber or a pleasure pavilion, highlighting the emphasis on both governance and luxury in the royal centre.
Similarly, the elephant stables, located close to the Lotus Mahal, are notable for their Indo-Islamic architectural influences, with arched entrances and domed roofs. The presence of such a grand structure for housing elephants signifies the importance of military strength and prestige in the Vijayanagara Empire. Elephants played a crucial role in warfare and royal processions, and the elaborate nature of their stables underscores the rulers’ emphasis on power, control, and display of wealth.
Both these structures indicate that the Vijayanagara rulers sought to establish an impressive and culturally vibrant capital. Their patronage of architectural styles that blended indigenous and foreign influences demonstrates their ambition to create a unique imperial identity. These buildings also reflect the rulers’ strategic governance, where military might, artistic grandeur, and cross-cultural interactions were integral to the administration of their vast empire.
8. What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara? How did they transform these traditions?
Answer: Some of the areas that were incorporated within the empire had witnessed the development of powerful states such as those of the Cholas in Tamil Nadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka. Ruling elites in these areas had extended patronage to elaborate temples such as the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur and the Chennakeshava temple at Belur. The rulers of Vijayanagara, who called themselves rayas, built on these traditions and carried them, as we will see, literally to new heights.
Even as they drew on earlier traditions, the rulers of Vijayanagara innovated and developed these. Royal portrait sculpture was now displayed in temples, and the king’s visits to temples were treated as important state occasions on which he was accompanied by the important nayakas of the empire.
In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in evidence. These included structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signaled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques, and skills needed to construct these towering gateways. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.
Another shrine, the Vitthala temple, is also interesting. Here, the principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra. The introduction of the worship of the deity in Karnataka is another indication of the ways in which the rulers of Vijayanagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture.
Just as the nayakas continued with and elaborated on traditions of fortification, so they did with traditions of temple building. In fact, some of the most spectacular gopurams were also built by the local nayakas.
9. Impression of the Lives of Ordinary People in Vijayanagara
Answer: The descriptions in the chapter provide glimpses into the lives of ordinary people in Vijayanagara. The city was vast, with different sections catering to various social and economic classes. The houses of ordinary people were primarily thatched but well built. These houses were arranged according to occupations and formed long streets with open spaces.
Markets played a significant role in daily life. There were bazaars selling various goods such as rubies, diamonds, pearls, cloth, and food items like rice, wheat, pulses, fruits, and meat. The markets were well-stocked and described as overflowing with abundance. Common people had access to a variety of food, including mutton, pork, venison, poultry, and even less common items such as rats and lizards.
Agriculture was crucial, with fortified areas encompassing cultivated land to ensure food supply during times of siege. Farmers, along with artisans and traders, contributed to the economy. Water management was essential, with elaborate irrigation systems, tanks, and canals ensuring adequate water for agriculture and daily use.
Religion played a significant role in people’s lives. Numerous small shrines and temples were spread across the city, pointing to diverse religious practices supported by different communities. Temple festivals and rituals were integral to social and cultural life, with grand celebrations like the Mahanavami festival.
While archaeological evidence of common people’s houses is limited, inscriptions and traveler accounts suggest a thriving urban society where trade, agriculture, and religious activities shaped daily life.
Extras
Additional questions and answers
1. Define Vijayanagara.
Answer: Vijayanagara, meaning “city of victory,” was both a city and an empire founded in the fourteenth century. The empire stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula at its height.
57. Describe the role of temples in establishing political legitimacy and social order in the Vijayanagara Empire.
Answer: Temples in the Vijayanagara Empire served as significant religious, social, cultural, and economic centres. Rulers encouraged temple building to associate themselves with the divine, often identifying the deity with the king. Temples functioned as centres of learning and received land and resources from rulers and others for their maintenance. Constructing, repairing, and maintaining temples were important means for rulers to gain support and recognition for their power, wealth, and piety.
The choice of Vijayanagara as a capital was likely inspired by the existence of shrines like those of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha, and all royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha.” Rulers used titles like “Hindu Suratrana,” indicating close links with the gods. Royal portrait sculptures were displayed in temples, and the king’s visits to temples were treated as important state occasions, accompanied by important nayakas.
Temples like the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples showcased immense structures such as raya gopurams and mandapas, symbolizing imperial authority. Halls within the temples were used for various purposes, including music, dance, drama, and celebrations of divine weddings, reinforcing the ruler’s legitimacy and social order.
Additional MCQs
1. Who brought the ruins at Hampi to light?
A. Colonel Mackenzie
B. Alexander Greenlaw
C. J.F. Fleet
D. John Marshall
Answer: A. Colonel Mackenzie
110. Which architectural feature in Vijayanagara was inspired by Indo-Islamic techniques?
A. Gopuram arch
B. Temple dome
C. Gateway arch
D. Fort wall
Answer: C. Gateway arch
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
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