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Summary
In Russia, rulers called Tsars held supreme power. This system was known as Tsarism. The Tsars ruled absolutely, meaning there were no real checks on their authority. Ivan IV was the first to use the title ‘Tsar’. The Romanoff family ruled from 1613 until 1917. The last Tsar, Nicholas II, had to give up his throne during the Russian Revolution. Early attempts to limit the Tsar’s power failed. Only after unrest in 1905 did Nicholas II allow some changes, like an elected assembly called the Duma. However, Russia remained largely an autocracy. Revolutionary groups existed for a long time. An early attempt was the Decembrist Revolt in 1825. Later, the Narodniks, or ‘populists’, tried to involve the peasants in revolution but failed. Some turned to violence, assassinating Tsar Alexander II. Industrial growth created a working class facing harsh conditions, leading to strikes and discontent. Some revolutionaries were inspired by Karl Marx’s ideas. Lenin became a key leader, heading the Bolshevik group. They aimed for a socialist revolution.
The background to the 1917 Revolution involved deep social, economic, and political problems. Russian society was mainly made up of nobles and peasants. Most peasants were serfs until 1861, but even after freedom, they faced land shortages. The middle class was small. Workers faced poor treatment. Economically, Russia was backward compared to other European countries, relying heavily on agriculture. Industrial growth occurred late, and the government seemed to favor industry over farming, hurting peasants and workers. Politically, the government was harsh, denying people rights and crushing protests. Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War led to the 1905 Revolution. Lenin called this a ‘dress rehearsal’, meaning it was like a practice run for the bigger revolution in 1917.
Russia’s part in World War I caused great suffering. People lost respect for Tsar Nicholas II. In early 1917, strikes broke out in the capital, Petrograd. The Tsar abdicated in March. A temporary Provisional Government took over but struggled to maintain order. Lenin returned to Russia with his plan, the April Theses, aiming to turn the democratic revolution into a socialist one. The Bolsheviks gained support, especially among workers. In November 1917, led by Lenin, they seized power in Petrograd, establishing a socialist government. This revolution ended Tsarist rule and created a socialist state. It ended social inequalities, reduced the Church’s power, and aimed to stop the exploitation of workers and peasants. It promoted the idea that political equality needed social and economic equality too. Economically, private property for production was abolished, and economic planning was introduced. Lenin later introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), allowing some private ownership temporarily.
World War I began in 1914 after the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The main sides were the Central Powers (like Germany and Austria) and the Entente Powers (like France, Britain, and later the USA). Fighting occurred on fronts like the Western Front, known for trench warfare, and the Eastern Front, where Russia fought Germany and Austria. Russia withdrew from the war in 1917 after the Bolshevik revolution, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The USA joined the war in 1917, helping the Entente Powers. The war ended in November 1918. After the war, the Allies had conflicting aims. Some sought revenge and national gains, while US President Woodrow Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points for a lasting peace, including self-determination and a League of Nations. Germany became the Weimar Republic.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, treated Germany harshly. It blamed Germany for the war, demanded huge payments called reparations, took away territory, and limited its military. This caused bitterness in Germany. The economic demands crippled Germany’s economy, leading to hyperinflation where money became almost worthless. The League of Nations was formed to prevent future wars, but it was weak. The USA didn’t join, and major powers like Germany and Russia were initially excluded.
In 1929, the US stock market crashed on ‘Black Thursday’, starting the Great Depression. This economic crisis affected the whole world. In the USA, banks failed, businesses closed, unemployment soared, and farmers lost their farms. In Europe, countries suffered as US financial support dried up. The Depression caused political instability, leading many governments to fall. It fueled the rise of extreme nationalism. In Germany, bitterness over the Versailles Treaty combined with the economic crisis helped aggressive nationalism grow. The Nazi party, led by Adolf Hitler, promised to restore Germany. Nazi ideology believed Germans were a superior ‘master race’, promoted a strong dictatorship, and aimed to expand German territory (Lebensraum).
In Italy, Benito Mussolini led the Fascist party. Fascism promoted nationalism, militarism, and dictatorship. Mussolini came to power after the ‘March on Rome’ in 1922. He pursued aggressive foreign policies. Italy managed the Depression through government action but was not self-sufficient. In Germany, the Depression severely impacted the country. The Nazi party gained support by promising solutions. Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 and quickly established a dictatorship, becoming the Fuhrer (‘leader’). He passed the Enabling Act, giving him total power. Nazi policies focused on racial purity, persecuting Jews and others deemed inferior. Hitler used Nietzsche’s idea of the ‘Superman’ to promote his racial theories, twisting it to mean a perfect Aryan human.
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was fought between the Republicans (supported by the Soviet Union) and the Nationalists led by General Franco (supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany). Spain had become a republic in 1931, but faced instability. Franco revolted against the elected Popular Front government. The war became a testing ground for Fascist forces and weapons. Franco won, establishing a long dictatorship.
Textual Questions, Answers (Oriental)
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The Russian Tsar who was forced to abdicate was :
(a) Nicholas I
(b) Alexander I
(c) Nicholas II
(d) Alexander II
Answer: (c) Nicholas II
2. The US President who drew up the Fourteen Points was :
(a) Abraham Lincoln
(b) Woodrow Wilson
(c) Hoover
(d) Roosevelt
Answer: (b) Woodrow Wilson
3. When did the Great Depression start after the Wall Street Crash ?
(a) 1914
(b) 1919
(c) 1929
(d) 1939
Answer: (c) 1929
4. Which two of the following countries took the side of Generral Franco in the Spanish Civil War ?
(a) France and Britain
(b) Britain and Russia
(c) Germany and Japan
(d) Germany and Italy
Answer: (d) Germany and Italy
Very-short Answer Type Questions
5. Which government of Russia was overthrown by the Bolshevik Military Committee?
Answer: The Bolshevik Military Committee declared the Provisional Government overthrown.
6. Which country considered the Treaty of Versailles as a ‘dictated peace’?
Answer: The Germans called the Treaty of Versailles a ‘dictated peace’.
7. Name one of the countries that did not join the League of Nations.
Answer: The USA did not join the League of Nations.
8. Which country, more than any other, was more susceptible to the consequences of the Great Depression of 1929?
Answer: Germany was more vulnerable to the consequences of the Great Depression of 1929 than any other country.
Short Answer Type Questions
9. What created land hunger among the Russian peasants prior to the Revolution of 1917?
Answer: Enormous growth of peasant population towards the close of the nineteenth century created a shortage of land to cultivate, which created land hunger among the Russian peasants prior to the Revolution of 1917.
10. What led the USA to join the World War II?
Answer: The United States joined the Second World War primarily due to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941.
11. What is ‘Black Thursday’?
Answer: On 24 October 1929, the American share market crashed. As the 24th was a Thursday, the day is remembered even today as the Black Thursday, and the crash is known as the Wall Street Crash.
12. Mention one of the methods by which Mussolini wanted to achieve his goals?
Answer: One of the methods by which Mussolini wanted to achieve his goal to make ‘Italy great, respected and feared’ was to achieve military status through military build-up.
Long Answer Type Questions-I
13. What was the nature of the Tsarist rule in Russia?
Answer: The system of government under the Tsars was a pure and simple autocracy. The Russian emperor was an absolute autocrat. There was no check on his exercise of power. The choice of ministers and government officials was solely made by the will of the Tsar. National policies were also formulated by him. A word from the Tsar was enough to change or abolish any existing institution or law. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, attempts were made to introduce some kind of reforms that would restrain the unlimited power of the Tsar, but none of these was successful. Even after concessions granted following the revolutionary disturbances of 1905, such as the legislative assembly called Duma, legalized political parties, and a set of Fundamental Laws, the form of government remained basically absolute autocracy. The combination of representative assembly and the autocracy of the Tsar and his reforms was impractical and eventually failed.
14. Narrate the circumstances in which Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne.
Answer: Tsar Nicholas II was the last ruler of the Romanoff dynasty. Respect for the royal family of Russia was totally lost due to the undue influence of Tsar’s wife, Empress Alexandra and Rusputin, a Siberian monk. Russia’s participation in World War I exposed the Russian people to great hardships. At the beginning of the year 1917, a series of strikes were called in Petrograd, the capital city, and troops were brought in to disperse the mobs roaming the streets. During the turmoil, the representatives of the workers organized an assembly known as the Petrograd Soviet. With the cooperation of the rebel troops, the Petrograd Soviet was able to take control of the city. On 1 March 1917, a Provisional Government was formed that sent messengers to Tsar Nicholas II urging him to step down from the throne. On 12 March 1917, Nicholas II resigned as the Tsar. This abdication, along with the Provisional Government’s declaration of Russia as a ‘Republic’ on the same day, marked the end of the first phase of the Russian Revolution, also known as the March Revolution or February Revolution (Old Russian Calendar).
15. Would you say that in the process of peace-making after the World War there was a conflict between realism and idealism?
Answer: Yes, in the process of peace-making after the First World War, there was a conflict between realism and idealism. The Allied Powers, influenced by national interest and public opinion suffering from war psychosis, leaned towards a retributive (revengeful) peace against the Central Powers, reflecting a spirit of reprisal and fulfilling specific national interests and imperialist ambitions through concessions and privileges (realism). For example, England wanted to curb German naval strength, France desired Alsace-Lorraine, Italy wanted Trentino and Trieste, and Balkan states desired independence. These aims were often based on secret treaties signed during the war.
Contrasting this was the idealism embodied in Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The United States, seeking no territorial gains, aimed to ‘make the world safe for democracy’ and end wars. Wilson’s points included principles like abandonment of secret diplomacy, freedom of the seas, removal of economic barriers, reduction of armaments, impartial adjustment of colonial claims, restoration of territories, self-determination for peoples, and the creation of an association of nations. While some of Wilson’s points coincided with Allied aims, the overall spirit of the Fourteen Points, focused on a just and lasting peace, was contradictory to the spirit of the secret treaties and the selfish, revengeful ambitions of the Allies. The challenge of the peace-making process was reconciling these conflicting approaches – the Allies’ realism driven by self-interest and revenge, and Wilson’s idealism aiming for a new world order. Ultimately, the spirit of the Fourteen Points was betrayed more in their breaches.
16. What was the implication of Mussolini’s March to Rome?
Answer: The implication of Mussolini’s March on Rome in October 1922 was the seizure of political power by the Fascists. The post-War Italian government was under severe strain and becoming dependent on Fascist members in parliament. Bowing before the show of strength represented by the March, King Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form a new government in 1922. Assuming the title Il Duce (the Leader), Mussolini became a dictator with all powers concentrated in his hands.
17. How did Hitler capture power in Germany?
Answer: Hitler captured power in Germany through a combination of political maneuvering, exploitation of economic crisis, and consolidation of authority. After the First World War and the establishment of the Weimar Republic, Hitler became involved with the German Workers’ Party (DAP), which was renamed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP or Nazi Party) in 1920. Hitler became its chairman in July 1921.
The Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression impacted Germany severely, leading to economic hardship, unemployment, and social unrest. The republican government (Weimar Republic) was unable to tackle the crisis effectively, causing people to lose faith and seek solutions in political extremism. The Nazi agitation gained increasing public sympathy during the 1930s. In the Reichstag election of 1932, the Nazis became the largest single party. Hitler successfully exploited this situation and became the Chancellor in 1933.
Once in power, Hitler sought a majority in the Reichstag. He persuaded President Hindenburg to call another election. In the election held on 28 February 1933, the Nazis, with the help of other parties, secured a two-thirds majority. Within two days, Hitler passed the Enabling Act (1933), which amassed all powers in his own hands and rendered the Reichstag powerless. This effectively made Hitler the Fuhrer or ‘leader’. Finally, on the death of Hindenburg in August 1934, Hitler combined the posts of President and Prime Minister into one, declaring himself the Fuhrer and Reich Chancellor. Thus, the seizure of power by Hitler was achieved.
18. What was the Narodnik Movement of Russia?
Answer: The Narodnik (or Narodniki) movement was the most important political movement that gained prominence in Tsarist Russia in the 60s of the nineteenth century. The Narodniks were ‘populists’. In the Russian language, ‘narod’ means the people, and in nineteenth-century Russia, ‘narod’ meant the peasantry rather than common people. A narodnik was one who sought to help the peasantry take the road of revolutionary struggle for a just and happy life. They sincerely believed the peasantry to be the leading figure in the liberation struggle in Russia. Hence, their movement was called a ‘Narodnik Movement’. However, the movement was unsuccessful. After its failure, a faction formed a terrorist organization called Narodnaya Volya (‘People’s Will’).
Long Answer Type Questions-II
19. Write about the revolutionary tradition in Russia.
Answer: Revolutionary forces had been active in Russia since the very foundation of the Romanoff dynasty. In fact, the Romanoffs who were wiped away by the Revolution of 1917 themselves had ascended the throne through a revolutionary upsurge. However, the early revolts were not specially directed against the tsar, or precisely, against the autocracy as an institution. The first open attempt at revolutionary change was the ill-fated and abortive Decembrist Revolt of 1825. It was only after the Emancipation Statute of Tsar Alexander II that any practical revolutionary activity took place.
The most important political movement that gained prominence in the 60s of the nineteenth century was the Narodnik (or Narodniki) movement. The Narodniks were ‘populists’ who sincerely believed peasantry to be the leading figure in the liberation struggle in Russia. The movement was unsuccessful. After the failure of the Narodnik movement a faction of them formed a terrorist organization called Narodnaya Volya (meaning ‘People’s Will’), one of whose members was responsible for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II.
The Tsarist autocracy reached its apogee under the rule of Tsar Alexander III. But in the economic sector he effected regeneration by industrialization of Russia. At the same time by doing so a situation was created conducive to the spread of mass discontent expressed in workers’ strike, working class consciousness, agitation and propaganda of revolutionary activities. Among these were some who were attracted towards the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It was to this background that the origin of Russian Marxism is to be traced. The first self-styled Russian Marxist revolutionary group was founded in Switzerland in 1883, calling itself the Group for the Liberation of Labour.
20. Write about the influence of the Russian Revolution?
Answer: As a result of the November Revolution, Russia became a socialist country ending the Tsarist despotism. The Revolution deeply impacted the contemporary social, political and economic world.
- Social: Social inequalities and conflicting clashes became a thing of the past. Abolition of the aristocratic privileges and the power of the Church was an achievement that impacted the social relations in different countries of the contemporary world. As a result of the Russian Revolution, the wealth and privileges that had been the monopoly of the aristocracy were devolved on the people. The Revolution also put an end to the exploitation of the workers and the peasantry, and thereby established the notion of a state free from exploitation.
- Political: The success of the socialist revolution in Russia brought about a re-definition of democracy. Most countries of the world came to realize that political equality is incomplete without social and economic equality. The spread of socialist ideas promoted internationalism. Nations of the world realized that their relations with other nations should go beyond the promotion of national self-interest. Political parties professing socialism in the colonial countries helped the peoples in their independence movements. Victory of the Bolshevik Revolution transformed the character of hitherto exclusively political nationalist revolts as it gave them the required social and economic content.
- Economic: In the economic sphere the socialist Russia abolished private property as a factor for production and the motive of profit was thus eliminated from the system of production. Another important aspect of the Russian economy was the introduction of the method of ‘economic planning’. In the nineteenth century Europe the industrial development was made possible at the behest of capitalists. But in Russia, after the Revolution, this was made possible through economic planning. The unprecedented rate of development in Russia demonstrated the effectiveness of planning as a means of progress.
21. Write about the economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer: The economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles signed by the Allies with Germany was a matter of concern for the Germans. In the pre-armistice terms Germany had agreed to compensate for all the damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and also the property damaged by her aggression by land, sea and air. Since the Allies could not agree upon a fixed amount to be charged from Germany the fixation of the final amount was postponed temporarily. A Reparation Commission was established to determine the German obligation, assessing the debt as high as 660 Crores of Sterling Pound.
Meanwhile Germany was to deliver large quantities of coal to France, Belgium and Italy for 15 years. A large number of horses, cattle, sheep, etc. was to be delivered to France and Belgium. For 5 years the Allies were given concessions on certain imports into and exports from Germany. Besides, various other demands were pressed on Germany that crippled the German economy.
Under the strain of the post-war economic problems German money system collapsed. The result was disastrous. The German currency Mark (Deutsch Mark) was not worth the paper it was printed on. German shopkeepers refused to accept money in exchange for goods, forcing the German people to resort to the ancient system of barter. Before the war most countries of Europe used gold coins, but after the war these were replaced by paper currency. In Germany, where money was in great shortage, the government began to print more and more currency notes, resulting in a drop of the value of money. This reduction in the value of money ruined those who depended on wages and salaries paid in cash. As their life savings and hopes disappeared, they became ready to listen to anyone who would promise them a better future.
22. How did the USA become the Power-centre of the world?
Answer: After the First World War, the political map of the world changed, particularly in Europe. Empires like the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian ended, the German Empire’s Kaiser was exiled, France was destroyed, and Russia became the USSR. Britain retained some power, but the USA was still a mighty power. The economies of European countries (except Russia) became dependent on the USA.
Although the Great Depression of 1929 affected the US economy adversely, within a few years, a programme of economic reconstruction and social welfare was started. Steps were taken to increase production levels, improve workers’ conditions, and create employment opportunities. Consequently, the USA’s economy recovered from the crisis, and industrial production picked up again, restoring prosperity.
On the other hand, European countries remained economically weak and militarily exhausted, facing turmoil from internal troubles and threats of dictatorship. The USA was in no danger of civil war or revolution. Thus, the USA emerged as the world power. In short, World War I weakened Europe and strengthened the USA. Europe’s primacy as the power-centre of the world came to an end.
Extras
Additional MCQs
1. What is the origin of the title Tsar?
A. Greek βασιλεύς
B. Latin Caesar
C. German Kaiser
D. French Roi
Answer: B. Latin Caesar
50. Which organisation was created to guarantee independence of all nations after WWI?
A. United Nations
B. League of Nations
C. European Union
D. Warsaw Pact
Answer: B. League of Nations
Additional Questions, Answers
1. From which Latin word is the term Tsar derived?
Answer: The word Tsar is derived from the Latin word Caesar.
57. Examine the shift of global power from Europe to the United States following the First World War and the Great Depression.
Answer: After the First World War, the political map of the world had changed, particularly in respect of Europe. The Ottoman Empire came to an end, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was disbanded, the German Empire of the Kaiser was exiled, France was destroyed, and Russia became the USSR. Britain retained some power, but the economies of the European countries (Russia excepted) became dependent on the USA. The USA was still a mighty power. The Great Depression of 1929 affected the US economy adversely, but within a few years, a programme of economic reconstruction and social welfare was started, production levels increased, and measures were undertaken to improve workers’ conditions and create employment. The economy of the USA recovered, industrial production picked up, and prosperity was restored. On the other hand, the European countries remained economically weak and militarily exhausted, and were in turmoil due to internal troubles and threats of dictatorship. The USA was in no danger either of civil war or of revolution. Thus, the USA emerged as the world power. In short, World War I weakened Europe and strengthened the USA. Europe’s primacy as the power-centre of the world came to an end, and its future looked bleak.
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
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