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Summary
The Industrial Revolution was a major change that began in the eighteenth century. New scientific inventions led to machines doing work that people used to do. This meant goods could be produced in large quantities. This big shift in how things were made and transported started mainly in England. There isn’t one exact start date, but many agree it was significant around 1760 or 1780. England became like the ‘workshop of the world’, meaning it made goods for many other places.
Factories and big mills were built in England, mostly in cities. Soon, other European countries realized they couldn’t just rely on farming or England’s goods. After wars involving Napoleon ended, countries like Belgium, France, Germany, and Russia started their own industrial growth. Belgium became very industrialized quickly. France started later, partly because of earlier troubles, but Napoleon encouraged industry, and it grew after 1830. Germany’s industrial growth took off after it became a unified country in 1870. Russia began industrializing later, especially after freeing the serfs in 1861. Sometimes, like in France, the government played a big role in building industries, while in England, it was mostly private business owners. English money and engineers often helped start industries in other countries.
New technology was key. James Watt’s steam engine provided power for machines. The textile industry, especially cotton, changed completely. Iron production improved. Stone started replacing timber in building. This led to the factory system, where many workers gathered in one building to use machines owned by an employer. This allowed for ‘mass production’, making lots of goods quickly.
This revolution changed society greatly. Two main social classes grew: the industrial bourgeoisie, or middle-class factory owners and business people who became wealthy, and the industrial proletariat, or the working class, who faced hard conditions. Many people moved from villages to cities looking for factory jobs. New cities grew rapidly, but living conditions for workers were often poor, crowded, and unhealthy, sometimes called ghettos. Women, especially single women from the countryside, became an important part of the factory workforce, earning their own money.
Some people, called socialists, saw the problems caused by industrialization, like the large gap between the rich and poor and the difficult lives of workers. Early socialists like Robert Owen tried to improve conditions peacefully. Later, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels had different ideas. They believed capitalism, the system based on private ownership and profit, was unfair and would eventually be overthrown by workers through conflict, leading to socialism or communism, where workers would control production.
The Industrial Revolution also fueled colonial expansion. Factories needed huge amounts of raw materials like cotton, and factory owners needed new markets to sell their finished goods because European countries couldn’t buy everything. They looked to Asia and Africa, continents that hadn’t industrialized. European powers like England, France, Holland, Portugal, and others took control of lands there, creating colonies. England built a vast empire, with India considered its most valuable possession, the ‘jewel in the crown’. China faced foreign control over its trade and territory, sometimes described as the ‘cutting of the Chinese melon’. Africa, once largely unknown to Europeans and called the ‘Dark Continent’, was rapidly divided among European powers in the ‘Scramble for Africa’. This search for resources and markets, driven by nationalism and a belief in their own superiority, is called imperialism.
Improvements in communication and transportation supported industry and colonialism. The telegraph allowed instant communication. Railways, using steam locomotives like George Stephenson’s Rocket, and steamships made travel and transport faster. The Suez Canal connected the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, making trade routes much shorter. These developments helped European powers control their colonies and expand trade. Under British rule, India was transformed from a country that exported finished goods to one that exported raw materials to Britain and imported British factory-made goods.
The competition for colonies and resources among European powers created rivalries and tension. Nations formed alliances for protection. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance, while Britain, France, and Russia formed the Triple Entente. Several crises, particularly in the Balkans, Morocco, and the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914, led to the outbreak of the First World War. The war involved the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, etc.) against the Entente Powers (France, Britain, Russia, Italy, USA, etc.) and lasted until 1918, causing immense loss of life and changing the world map.
Textual Questions, Answers (Oriental)
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Of the following who first used the term ‘Industrial Revolution ?
(a) Arnold Toyanbee
(b) Blanqui
(c) Karl Marx
(d) Friedrich Engels
Answer: (b) Blanqui
2. In which of the following countries industrialization was achieved mainly through government initiative ?
(a) England
(b) Germany
(c) France
(d) Belgium
Answer: (c) France
3. In the bourgeoisie-capitalist system the bourgeoisie was unwilling to accept the ______ system of government.
democratic
aristocratic
monarchical
parliamentary
Answer: monarchical
4. ______ was one of the early socialists.
Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
Robert Owen
Hegel
Answer: Robert Owen
Short Answer Type Questions
5. Which revolution brought about changes in the mode of production ?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution brought about changes in the mode of production. As a result of scientific inventions in the eighteenth century, human labour came to be replaced more and more by machines producing goods in huge quantity. This transformation in the mode of production and transportation, the general substitution of power-driven machinery for human labour, is known as the Industrial Revolution.
6. Linking of which two seas made easier the movement of cargo between East and the West?
Answer: Linking the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea by means of the Suez Canal made easier the movement of cargo between East and West, making the development of international trade faster.
7. Which policy was suggested by the USA regarding the opening of China ?
Answer: Fearing that its trade with China would be shut off as a consequence of the parceling out of China into exclusive spheres of influence, the USA suggested the policy of ‘Open Door’. According to this policy, all countries would have equal rights to trade anywhere in China.
8. What constituted the immediate cause of the First World War ?
Answer: The July Crisis of 1914 constituted the immediate cause of the World War I. On 28 June 1914, at Sarajevo, the Austrian Archduke, Franz Ferdinand, who was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by a Serbian terrorist. Austria presented an ultimatum to Serbia, and the severe attitude of the German Emperor, William II, insisted that the Serbs be dealt with once and for all, leading to the outbreak of the war.
Long Answer Type Questions-I
9. What led to the migration of people from rural areas to the urban centres as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution brought about a shift in the population. Before the Industrial Revolution, the majority of the population lived in villages as it was dependent on agriculture or was attached to land in one way or the other. With the growth of industrialization, the scenario changed completely. The centre of economic life shifted from villages to cities. The new cities that had grown were important centres of industry. Consequently, there was a shift in the population. People gradually moved from villages to cities. This was inevitable as factories were located in cities where people could find jobs.
10. How was India transformed from an exporter to an importer under the British colonial rule?
Answer: Prior to British colonial rule, Indian handicrafts had a steady market in Europe, and India was the world’s principal producer and exporter of cotton textiles. However, the Industrial Revolution in England completely changed India’s economic relations. England developed its industry with modern machines, producing huge quantities of goods which found their way into Indian markets. Indian hand-made goods could not compete with the cheaper machine-made goods produced in English factories. Consequently, India not only lost foreign markets for her manufactures but also saw her own shops flooded with goods produced in England. Deprived of exporting her manufactures, India was forced to export raw materials like cotton, raw silk, indigo, and tea, which the industrial establishments of England urgently needed and were in short supply there. As a colony of England, India was guided by the needs of the British industry. Thus, India, a country that had been an exporter of finished products, was transformed into a country that imported machine-made products from England under British colonial rule.
Long Answer Type Questions-II
19. Narrate how the Industrial Revolution spread in the Continent of Europe.
Answer: Industrial Revolution first made its appearance in England. After the restoration of peace in Europe in 1815, machine production was extended to the Continent. At the initial stage, English capital financed the industrial enterprises in the Continent, and English engineers supplied the necessary technological knowledge.
No European country even attempted to follow in England’s footsteps till the end of the Napoleonic era. Almost immediately after, Belgium undertook a movement of industrialization with the indirect help of England. However, it was not before 1830 that the movement gained momentum. Thereafter it speeded up so sharply that by 1870 Belgium became the most industrialized nation.
Industrialization started rather late in France. Socio-economic and political disorder due to the Revolution and the Napoleonic warfare acted as a major hindrance. Napoleon, however, made a determined effort to build up industry in France, including founding technical schools and advancing government loans. This support served as the basis for later French industrialization. The real beginning of large-scale industry in France dates from 1830. Under the July Monarchy, industrialization made much headway. In 1832 railway construction commenced, helped by the Bank of France’s liberal credit policy. After its real beginning in 1830, France was second only to England in exporting industrial products, excelling in quality rather than quantity. An important aspect of industrialization in France was the role of the French government; unlike in England where it was the work of the capitalist class, in France, industrialization was achieved mainly through government initiative, including providing capital for railway construction.
As Germany remained divided into small states, fixing a precise start date is difficult. Political disunity was the greatest handicap. Prussia was much advanced industrially compared to states under the Napoleonic Empire. The real beginning of industrial revolution in Germany began only after she attained her unity in 1870. Despite uneven growth due to political reasons, a unified Germany far outdistanced France after 1870. In Germany, as well, the railway was built with the additional aid of English capital, and unlike England, Belgium, and France, railway construction preceded the real beginning of industrialization.
The Industrial Revolution of England had some impact on Russia during the mid-nineteenth century. In 1852 the first railway line was completed between Moscow and St. Petersburg. The real beginning of industry in Russia dates from the reign of the Tsar Alexander II. The Emancipation Statute of 1861, freeing serfs, created an atmosphere for industry to flourish. Under Tsar Alexander III, coal-fields and iron-mines began to be extensively worked. The most important feature of industrialization in Russia was that industries were mostly established with the aid of foreign capital. By 1914, some 2000 million rubles of foreign capital had been invested. This absolute dependence on foreign capital remained a major source of weakness.
20. What was the impact of the Industrial Revolution on society?
Answer: Industrialization brought about unforeseen consequences. The personal relationship that had existed earlier between the employed and the employee was lost as a result of mechanization. The mass of workers began to shift to cities where large factories were established.
In England, where industrialization began and progressed rapidly, the social consequences were felt unambiguously. The Industrial Revolution gave rise to two classes: the Industrial bourgeoisie and the Industrial proletariat. The industrial bourgeoisie (middle class) amassed enormous capital from profiteering and exploitation. The industrial proletariat (working class) faced extreme hardship and proliferated with new industries, initially lacking political struggle experience and remaining unorganized. Other classes like nobility and peasantry played minor roles, but the middle class and working class emerged as the two most important social classes.
The Industrial Revolution brought tremendous changes, particularly for working people. Workers no longer laboured outdoors as farmers; most worked in factories and lived in large, crowded cities. England’s urban population far exceeded its rural population. Big industrial towns like Birmingham, Manchester, and Newcastle grew alongside London, with large populations. The move from farms to cities was gradual. City living was unattractive; most workers lived in small, one-family houses built side-to-side and back-to-back, lacking windows except in the front, resulting in filthy, unsanitary, and airless housing.
The Industrial Revolution caused a population shift from rural areas to urban centres (cities). Before industrialization, the majority lived in villages, dependent on agriculture or land. With industrialization, the economic life centre shifted from villages to cities, as factories were located there, offering jobs. According to one estimate, less than 20% of England’s population remained attached to land due to industrialization.
Capitalism developed alongside the Industrial Revolution. The bourgeoisie, concerned with preserving capital and economic supremacy, embraced capitalism, where profit is the primary motive. Profit (difference between expenses and income) accumulation encouraged reinvestment for further profit, driving rapid development of manufacturing industries and businesses. This helped the bourgeoisie consolidate wealth and power. With enormous wealth, they sought political power and participation in government, leading to political systems like England’s parliamentary system, where the Reform Bill of 1832 granted representation to new industrial centres.
During the late nineteenth century, as industries expanded, capitalists made immense profits, widening the gap between them and the working class. Personal contact between employers and employees vanished. Inequality increased daily. Workers lived in unhealthy city conditions, while wealthy factory owners resided in elegant areas. A middle class, neither rich nor poor, included government officials, professionals, teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc. People became aware of economic differences separating classes, reflected even in railway travel with different classes for wealthier and poorer people, and separate waiting rooms.
One socio-economic consequence was the growing employment of women from the countryside. The power loom adoption changed the labour force; mill owners depended on tall, single women as labourers. Women remained a key labour force for cotton mills. Young women sought mill employment to earn their own support and save for future marriages. Some also used earnings to assist their families.
21. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to colonial expansionism?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution resulted in the development of industries, leading to a massive increase in goods production with machines. This fostered the capitalist system, where the primary purpose was ‘profit’. Capitalists sought profit maximization by increasing production and offering minimum wages. Low wages meant low purchasing power for workers, the majority of the population. Consequently, the huge production of goods remained unsold locally. Industrialized European countries needed new markets and buyers for their surplus goods. They couldn’t sell these goods to each other, as the spread of the Industrial Revolution meant all faced the same problem of surplus goods.
European countries looked for markets overseas. Asia and Africa, lacking industrialization, offered the best markets. In addition to markets, industrialized European countries needed raw materials at cheaper rates to feed their industries. As needed resources couldn’t all be procured locally, European countries sought nations where raw materials were available cheaply. The abundance of raw materials in Asia and Africa attracted European countries to establish political domination over these continents. Political domination was also seen as inevitable to protect markets from other European rivals.
Another incentive was the tendency to export surplus capital from industrialized European nations to underdeveloped countries where interest rates were usually higher than at home.
All this favoured the growth of colonial expansionism by European powers. The Industrial Revolution made European countries dependent on Asian and African countries for economic and industrial development, leading to the building of colonial empires. The most important element favouring colony establishment in Asia and Africa was the absence of industrialization and modern nation-states there. Furthermore, nineteenth-century governments in Asia and Africa were very weak, with rulers doing little to stop foreigners, offering European powers opportunities to establish colonies.
22. Why was India considered as the ‘jewel in the crown of the British Empire’?
Answer: In view of the richness of the Indian resources, the British as colonial rulers found it as a precious country. The British found India as a source of several materials which they could extract to make their own country richer and wealthy. Besides draining out India’s wealth in different forms, the English industrialists found the country as a rich source of raw materials, to feed the British industries at a cheap cost. Moreover, the British found the country a beautiful place to travel. The scenic beauty of the countryside as also the presence of several historical sites attracted the people of England. In view of all this Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of England (1874-1881) named India as ‘the brightest Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire’.
23. Narrate the crises that led to the First World War.
Answer: Three crises that made the First World War inevitable were the Balkan crisis, Morocco crisis and Agadir Crisis. The fourth one, the July crisis of 1914 constituted the immediate cause of the war.
a. The Balkan Crisis: This crisis generated as a result of the expansionist policy of Austria-Hungary towards the Balkans. Such a policy was encouraged by Germany despite the fact that this would provoke Russia and Serbia. The German position was that in the event of an Austrian invasion of Serbia if Russia helped Serbia, Germany would come to Austria’s assistance.
b. The Moroccan Crisis: This crisis developed as a result of the German interference in Morocco. Kaiser William II, the Emperor of Germany, came out openly in support of the Moroccan independence against the French (1905). Such a move by Germany was to bring pressure upon France to isolate her from an alliance with Britain. Germany, however, did not get the desired result of isolating France.
c. Agadir Crisis: This crisis was a continuation of the Moroccan crisis. In 1911 a German gunboat, the Panther, appeared in the port of Agadir in Morocco. The matter came to a head when it was revealed that the gunboat was sent with the ulterior motive of establishing German claim over Morocco.
d. The July Crisis of 1914: This crisis constituted the immediate cause of the World War I. On 28 June 1914, at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Harzegovina, the Austrian Archduke, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife were assassinated by a Bosnian Serb student, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the secret society, Black Hand, committed to Serbian liberation from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. On 28 July Austria presented an ultimatum to Serbia with a 48-hour time limit, which shocked European foreign ministers by its severity. Austria-Hungary considered the Serbian reply unacceptable and declared war against the Serbs. The German Emperor, William II insisted that the Serbs be dealt with once and for all and decided to give complete support to Austria-Hungary even at the risk of war (the famous Blank Cheque). This was the beginning of the First World War.
24. Make a brief overview of the First World War.
Answer: The contestants in the First World War were: The Triple Alliance or the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria and Turkey) and the Entente Powers (Russia, France, Britain, Italy, the USA, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece).
a. Schlieffen Plan: At the start of the war the German armies operated according to the Schlieffen Plan. The Plan intended to ensure a German victory over Franco-Russian alliance by holding up any Russian advance westwards.
b. The Western Front: In 1914 the Germans decided to concentrate their war efforts on attacking Russia in the east. At the same time arrangements were made to defend the Western Front.
c. The Eastern Front: Fighting on the Eastern Front began with the Russian invasion of East Prussia and Austria in 1914. After initial Russian success, the German troops were hurried from the Western Front that successfully stopped the Russian forces.
d. End of the War: At an enormous cost to both sides in men and materials Germany ultimately surrendered. An armistice was signed in November 1918. At the Paris Peace Conference (1919) harsh terms were imposed on the defeated powers of the Triple Alliance.
Extras
Additional MCQs
1. What did the Industrial Revolution generally substitute for human labour?
A. power-driven machinery
B. domestic production
C. skilled artisans
D. animal power
Answer: A. power-driven machinery
55. What feature of production did the factory system stimulate?
A. division of labour
B. free trade
C. cottage industry
D. guild production
Answer: A. division of labour
Additional Questions, Answers
1. Which French writer first used the term Industrial Revolution?
Answer: The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was first used by a French writer, Blanqui.
39. Discuss how nineteenth-century advances in transportation and communication technologies reshaped economic integration and imperial control.
Answer: With the changes in the mode of production and distribution during the Industrial Revolution, the need arose for better methods of communication and transportation.
Development of railways and steam navigation made travel and communication much more rapid. In transportation, canals improved transport in the early years, but the real need for cheap and fast transportation was met by railroads. Richard Trevithick’s experiment around 1801 and George Stephenson’s successful steam locomotive, the Rocket (first trip 1829), marked the beginning of railways. The Suez Canal, completed in 1869, linked the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. This made carrying cargo between East and West easier, significantly speeding up the development of international trade. The opening of the Suez Canal also encouraged the European search for colonies in the closing years of the nineteenth century, and England, as the major shareholder, brought the Canal under its control to secure the sea route to India.
In communication, the greatest improvement was instantaneous communication by electricity, introduced with Morse’s telegraph (1837). By the 1830s, telegraph networks spread across Britain, central Europe, and the USA. A submarine cable between Britain and America enabled instantaneous news transmission. Later developments included Bell’s telephone (1876) and Marconi’s wireless (1896). The telegraph also stimulated the print media.
These advances reshaped economic integration by facilitating much faster movement of goods and information, thereby accelerating international trade and connecting markets more closely. They also enhanced imperial control by allowing rapid communication between colonial powers and their territories, enabling quicker deployment of resources or troops, and securing vital trade routes like the Suez Canal, which were crucial for maintaining and expanding empires.
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
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