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Summary
In the 19th century, Bengal was the centre of the literary world. Bengali newspapers and journals have contributed mightily to the spread of information across India. Hickey’s Bengal Gazette was the first Indian newspaper. It came out in Calcutta in 1780. Bengali journalism dates back to 1818. The Serampore Baptist Mission put out periodicals like “Samachar Darpan” and “Digdarshan.” Under the patronage of Raja Rammohan Roy, “Sambad Kaumudi” was published in 1821. Later, newspapers and magazines like “Hutom Pyanchar Naksha,” “Nil Darpan,” “Hindoo Patriot,” “Grambarta Prakashika,” “Somprakash,” and “Sambad Prabhakar” wrote about the social and political problems of the time. To combat the many oppressive forces targeting women, the “Bamabodhini Patrika” spoke out.
As a company, the English East India Company did not care about the Indians’ academic progress. As the need for high-quality clerks with low salaries grew, the British set up a number of colleges and universities. Lord Wellesley started Fort William College in Calcutta in 1800 so that the city’s young people could get an education.
A significant contribution was made by Christian missionaries to the dissemination of western education. Western education flourished thanks to the work of Rammohan Roy, David Hare, and Radhakanta Deb. In the beginning, the Charter Act of 1813 mandated that the Company allocate one lakh rupees toward improving India’s educational system. The proposed use of such a large sum of money sparked an Anglicist-Orientalist debate. In the end, Bentinck, who supported the English-only education policy, prevailed in 1835.
It wasn’t until 1854 that the famous Education Despatch of Charles Wood appeared, outlining the principle of a “graded educational system from the primary to the university.” The Calcutta Medical College was founded in 1835. Calcutta University was founded in 1857. According to Wood’s Despatch, a commission led by W.W. Hunter was established in 1882, ushering in a pivotal period in the development of western education in India.
Female education was also prioritised and given a boost. In 1849, J.D. Bethune and Vidyasagar established what would become known as Bethune College in Calcutta as an institution dedicated to the education of women. Later, in 1890, the Brahmo Balika Shikshalaya was founded.
Casteism, untouchability, child marriage, polygamy, female infanticide, sati, etc. were just some of the religious and social ills that plagued Bengal in the nineteenth century. In the second half of the 19th century, there were social and religious reform movements that tried to fix what was wrong with society. The social and religious reform movements were led by figures such as Rammohan Roy, Derozio, Keshab Chandra Sen, and Vidyasagar, among many others. They spoke out against society’s harmful norms and practises.
Different Acts were passed to put an end to these evil customs after persistent opposition from the Brahmo Samaj. The Young Bengal, inspired by Derozio’s leadership, brought about an understanding of the need for social and religious changes. A cultural and intellectual reawakening occurred in 19th-century Bengal, comparable to the European Renaissance of the 16th century. Main manifestations of the renaissance in Bengal included the proliferation of newspapers, periodicals, and literary works as well as the introduction of western education and ideas.
In addition to Rammohan Roy, Akshay Kumar Dutta, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Madhusudan Dutta, Hem Chandra Banerjee, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Dinabandhu Mitra, etc., the history of Bengali literature is filled with illustrious names. Several Bengali scientists, most notably Satyendranath Bose, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, and Jagadish Chandra Bose, were instrumental in advancing scientific knowledge. Bengal’s part in the modern awakening is akin to Italy’s during the Renaissance in Europe.
Textual Questions and Answers
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Of the following who was the publisher of the Bamabodhini, a Bengali periodical?
(a) Harish Chandra Mukherjee
(b) Umesh Chandra Datta
(c) Madhusudan Roy
(d) Dinabandhu Mitra
Answer: (b) Umesh Chandra Datta
2. Of the following which was authored by Kaliprasanna Sinha?
(a) Neel Darpan
(b) Hootum Pyanchar Naksha
(c) Sattar Batsar
(d) Grambarta Prakashika
Answer: (b) Hootum Pyanchar Naksha
Tick True/False
1. It was not before 1813 that English education was introduced in India under the government initiative
Answer: (a) True
2. The Evangelists were those who did not favour the introduction of English education in India.
Answer: (b) False
3. The Bethune College emerged as an important institution for the higher education of women in Bengal.
Answer: (a) True
Fill in the Gaps
1. Foundation of universities was laid by _____ Dispatch of 1854 (Curzon’s/Hare’s/Wood’s/Macaulay’s)
Answer: Wood’s
2. The Brahmo Samaj founded by ____________ became the centre of the reformist movement in Bengal. (Keshab Chandra Sen/Debendranath Tagore/Iswarchandra Vidyasagar/Rammohan Roy)
Answer: Rammohan Roy
3. In 1855 ____________ published a pamphlet on the issue of remarriage of Hindu widows. (Rammohan/Vidyasagar/Derozio/Srischandra Vidyalankar)
Answer: Vidyasagar
Assertion and Reason
1. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar
(a) Struggled in favour of remarriage of Hindu widow.
(b) Opposed child-marriage and polygamy.
(c) Campaigned in favour of education of women.
(d) Became the principal of the Sanskrit College in Kolkata and admitted non-Brahmin students into it.
Select the answer from the codes given below:
(i) a, b and c
(ii) b, c and d
(iii) a, c and d
(iv) All of these
Answer: (iv) All of these.
2. Which of the following statements are true about the Brahmo Movement of Bengal?
(a) After the death of Rammohan Roy the cause of the Brahmo Movement was taken up by Debendranath Tagore.
(b) Rammohan was not the founder of the Brahmo Samaj
(c) Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1878
(d) Nababidhan was founded by Keshab Chandra Sen.
Select the answer from the codes given below:
(i) a, b and c
(ii) a, b and d
(iii) a, c and d
(iv) All of these
Answer: (iii) a, c and d.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. What was the outlook of the newspaper Hindoo Patriot?
Answer: The Hindoo Patriot was a newspaper with a national outlook.
2. How did the middle class Bengalee react to the Indigo Rebellion?
Answer: It was largely due to the efforts of Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neel Darpan that the Bengalee middle class for the first time came out in open support to the indigo rebels.
3. How did Lord Hardinge boost the English education?
Answer: In 1844, Lord Hardinge gave further stimulus to English education by linking up knowledge of English with government employment. He declared that English-knowing Indians would be given preference in government employment. This made English education more popular.
4. Who was the first Bengalee to dissect a dead body?
Answer: In the annals of medical education in India, the name of Pandit Madhusudan Gupta stands out as the person who first dissected a corpse at Calcutta Medical College. On 10 January 1836, Madhusudan Gupta dissected a dead body.
Analytical Answer Type Questions
1. What reflections of the contemporary Bengali society are found in the Bamabodhini?
Answer: The Bamabodhini, a Bengali periodical published from 1863 by Umesh Chandra Datta, reflected contemporary Bengali society primarily through its strong emphasis on women’s issues. It intended to focus on the needs of the womenfolk and addressed itself to promote necessary knowledge in different subjects amongst women. Bamabodhini helped bring about women’s progress in education and social matters. Articles and poems published in it, along with essays, dealt with the notion of the ideal woman in Bengalee society, the definition and character of ‘new Bengali women’, the significance of women’s schools, the virtues of good motherhood, and the institution of marriage. Most importantly, the Bamabodhini emphatically raised the position of the widows in society and vouched for Hindu widow remarriage.
2. Write in short about the Anglicist-Orientalist controversy.
Answer: The Anglicist-Orientalist controversy arose in the official circles of the East India Company’s government regarding the type of education to be introduced in India, following the Charter Act of 1813 which set aside funds for learning. Initially, British officials were not interested in changing the prevalent system. However, a controversy developed between two groups. The Anglicist (western) view favoured the introduction of Western scientific knowledge in India, while the Orientalist (oriental) view was in favour of promoting and disseminating traditional Indian learning. Key figures in the Anglicist party included W.W. Bird, Saunders, C.E. Trevelyan, and Calvin, while Orientalists included H. T. Princep, Elliot, Macnaghten, and Sutherland. This controversy continued for some time until it was ultimately set at rest in 1835 by Lord William Bentinck, influenced by Lord Macaulay’s recommendation. The decision was made to devote funds to promote European literature and sciences using English as the medium of instruction alone.
3. How did David Hare help the spread of English education?
Answer: David Hare played a significant role in spreading Western learning and sciences among the people of Bengal. He felt that free-thinking, secularism, and idealism were to be encouraged. He was one of the founders of the Hindu College (presently Presidency University) established in 1817, a landmark in the growth of Western education. Furthermore, David Hare was instrumental in establishing the School Book Society, which took the initiative to print and publish textbooks in both English and Bengali. He also founded the School Society in 1818, which did much for women’s education, and was attached to the Ladies’ Society for Native Female Education.
4. Write about the initiative of Young Bengal in social reform?
Answer: The students of Derozio, collectively known as the Young Bengal or Derozians, played an important role in the social reform of contemporary India. Inspired by Western literature and the radical thinking of their teacher, Louis Henry Vivian Derozio, they spoke loudly about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition. Some members even renounced the sacred thread (paita) and challenged traditional religious practices. The Young Bengal group also took up the issue of widow remarriage. Their paper, Jnananveshan, appreciated efforts to promote the remarriage of Hindu widows, and another Derozian paper, the Bengal Spectator, expressed hope for the removal of prejudices against it. Although the movement initiated by the Young Bengal was short-lived and lost momentum by 1840, it fostered a spirit of free thinking and enquiry.
Explanatory Answer Type Questions
1. What picture of the city life of Calcutta is obtained from the Hootum Pyanchar Naksha ?
Answer: Hootum Pyanchar Naksha provides satirical sketches of the city life of Kolkata mixed with an underlying humour. It looked at the changes that had been taking place and noticed and expressed with irony and humour how the old and the new lived side by side.
A description of a Kolkata city street illustrates this: “When the rain stopped, everyone emerged from the woodworks — the pedestrians, hawkers, fishwives and their men, outcaste Brahmins went around singing and begging for alms carrying the image of the goddess Sitala on a tray, Vaishnava mendicants wondered about singing playing their ektaras and tambourines, migrant Brahmins went around begging for alms crying, there were opium addicts, sweepers in their grog shops buying rum after work was over, drummers, cremators, pig-rearers, palki-bearers too emerged.” Hootum Pyanchar Naksha was an attempt to understand the chaos and the change all around, containing references to contemporary events, such as ridiculing the Europeans in Kolkata for their fear of the Revolt of 1857 and for exaggerating atrocities committed by the rebels.
2. How did Swami Vivekananda explain the Neo Vedanta ?
Answer: Neo-Vedanta, also called Neo-Hinduism, are terms which characterize the interpretation of Hinduism that developed during the nineteenth century. Neo-Vedanta is a re-establishment and re-construction of Vedanta of Sankara with modern arguments suited to modern man. Neo-Vedantism is a re-establishment and re-statement, reconstruction and revaluation, reorientation and reinterpretation of the Advaita Vedanta of Sankara with modern language, suited to a modern man, adjusting with all the challenges of modern life.
The practical applications of Neo-Vedanta are to be found in the life and teaching of Sri Ramakrishna. It was left to Swami Vivekananda to develop them into the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta and lay the foundation of practical Vedanta. Vedanta was an expression of Hindu spiritual supremacy which, to Vivekananda, was the one universal religion. He linked this concept to a two-fold division of the world between East and West.
3. Write about the rich Bengal Print media and literature during the 19th Century. Name some periodicals of that time, particularly about Bambodhini. Bamabodhini raised the position of women in society – Write a few hints about it. What did ‘Hindu Patriot’ do ?
Answer: The rich cultural heritage of Bengal found expression in print media as also in literature during the nineteenth century. Even before the introduction of Western education Bengal was endowed with men of letters and thinkers who were critical of the then British rule, while also seeing the weaknesses and pitfalls of Bengali society. The print media (journals, newspapers, periodicals, etc.) contributed significantly in social and other fields, including promoting nationalism. Newspapers are a primary source of history, reflecting their period and providing glimpses into society, helpful for contemporary social, political, and economic history. Among the papers and periodicals publishing articles on social reforms and problems, mention may be made of Jnandarshan, Bamabodhini, and Hindoo Patriot.
Bamabodhini was a Bengali periodical published in 1863 by Umesh Chandra Datta, with strong emphasis given to women’s issues. Sri Datta wrote that the paper intended to focus on the needs of the womenfolk and promote necessary knowledge in different subjects amongst women. Published until 1923, Bamabodhini helped bring about women’s progress in education and social matters. It published articles and poems by writers, essays on the ideal woman in Bengalee society, and discussed the definition and character of ‘new Bengali women’, the significance of women’s schools, the virtues of good motherhood, and the institution of marriage. Most importantly, the Bamabodhini emphatically raised the position of the widows in society and vouched for Hindu widow remarriage.
Hindoo Patriot was an English weekly published from Kolkata, initially by Madhusudan Roy under the editorship of Girish Chandra Ghosh in 1853. Under Harish Chandra Mukherjee’s editorship, it became the leading news weekly of Bengal. The Hindoo Patriot addressed contemporary social problems, opining, for example, that the Hindu marriage law imposed disability on girls exercising their right to marry on their own initiative, and remarked that abolishing early marriage would destroy the system. It was a newspaper with a national outlook, publishing articles during the Revolt of 1857. It also became a mouthpiece of protest against the injustices done to peasants by indigo planters, publishing stories vividly narrating their oppression. Later, under Krishnadas’s editorship after Harish Chandra’s death, the paper raised its voice against the British Government’s actions in muzzling the press.
4. Write about ‘Hootam Pyanchar Naksha’ by Kaliprasanna Singha. What speciality did it have ? Give an idea of what did it cater to the people of that time. What else did Kaliprasanna do?
Answer: Hootum Pyanchar Naksha (literally Sketches by a Watching Owl), authored by Kaliprasanna Sinha, was first published in 1862 and occupies a special place in Bengali literature.
Its speciality was addressing the strain within nineteenth-century Bengalee society caused by factors like conversion to Christianity, the emergence of Brahmoism, sea-voyage (not permitted by orthodox view), and social reform programmes. All this turmoil found expression in its pages. Hootum (Kaliprasanna Sinha) was a keen observer who looked at the changes taking place, noticing and expressing with irony and humour how the old and the new lived side by side, as shown in a description of a Kolkata city street. The book was an attempt to understand the chaos and the change all around.
It catered to understanding contemporary events, referencing, for example, the Revolt of 1857 which occurred a few years prior. The success of Kaliprasanna’s sketches was immediate, and it targeted influential men through satire, leading to a host of imitators springing up.
Besides writing the Naksha, Kaliprasanna ridiculed the Europeans in Kolkata for their fear of the Revolt and for exaggerating atrocities committed by the rebels.
5. Write about the impact of Dinabandhu Mitra’s ‘Neel Darpan’. Write about the torture perpetrated by the Indigo Planters upon the people. Write about Kangal Harnith Majumder.
Answer: Neel Darpan (literally meaning An Indigo Mirror), a Bengali play authored by Dinabandhu Mitra against the background of the Indigo Revolt (1859-1860), had a significant impact. The play exposed the grim picture of inhuman villainy and torture perpetrated by the indigo planters, most of whom were Europeans. In the days when the British in India were at the height of their power, it was daring and bold for Dinabandhu Mitra to raise a voice of protest against them. The Neel Darpan impacted the intellectual circles of Bengal. Largely due to its efforts, the Bengalee middle class for the first time came out in open support of the indigo rebels. While its main theme was the plight of the indigo cultivators, the play also highlighted the oppressive machinery of the colonial rulers that suppressed native resistance at local levels.
Regarding the torture perpetrated by the Indigo Planters, the play Neel Darpan exposed the grim picture of inhuman villainy and torture. The indigo planters did what they liked to the peasantry. Indigo cultivators in places like Jessore (Dinabandhu’s native place) were worst affected because of the oppressions of the indigo planters. Dinabandhu had first-hand knowledge of how the peasantry was treated.
Kangal Harinath Majumdar was the editor of the Grambarta Prakashika, a popular journal of nineteenth-century Bengal, first published in 1863. The main theme of the journal was to expose to the public the miserable condition of villages and the distress of the villagers under British colonial rule. It also published articles on literature, philosophy, science, etc., written by reputed Bengalee scholars, including essays and poems by Rabindranath Tagore. The publication shifted from Calcutta to Kusthia in 1864. Harinath’s greatest contribution through the journal was leading a relentless struggle to promote education in Bengal. The Grambarta Prakashika also addressed contemporary political matters and sought to create public opinion against the political and social wrongs done by the British colonial government.
6. In the 19th Century Bengal, there was a conflict between Oriental and Western Education. Write briefly about the conflict. Who were evangelists ? Describe their activities. Mention about Education Minutes by Macauley.
Answer: In 19th Century Bengal, a conflict arose regarding the type of education to be introduced in India. Initially, British officials in India were not interested in changing the prevalent system. The Charter Act of 1813 provided funds (one lac rupees annually) for the promotion of learning, but the East India Company’s government could not spend the money due to a controversy in official circles. The conflict was between the Anglicist (western) view, which favoured the introduction of Western scientific knowledge, and the Orientalist (oriental) view, which favoured promoting and disseminating traditional Indian learning. This Anglicist-Orientalist controversy continued for quite some time.
Evangelists were those in England who constantly put pressure upon the British government in London for the spread of education in India. The chief exponent of Evangelism was Charles Grant. However, even the Evangelists could not initially mould the minds of the British officials in India, who remained undecided on the type of education.
The controversy was ultimately set at rest in 1835 by the initiative of Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General. Lord Macaulay, the Law Member in the Governor-General’s Council, was also in favour of introducing Western education. In his Minute (Macaulay’s Minute) of 1835, Macaulay recommended the introduction of English education in India through the medium of English. On the strength of Macaulay’s opinion, Lord Bentinck finalized the education policy. A Resolution declared that the British government would devote the stipulated funds to promote European literature and sciences among the natives of India, with the English language alone as the medium of instruction. Following this, the General Committee of Public Instruction proceeded with full vigour to spread English education.
7. Describe Iswar Chandra’s contribution towards women education. Describe Indian initiatives for the spread of Western education. What was Raja Rammohan Roy’s contribution towards education. How did he come to be known as the ‘First Modern Man of India ?’ Write about Raja Radha Kanta Dev in this connection.
Answer: Iswarchandra Vidyasagar worked for the education of women. He realised that there could not be emancipation of women, if they remained uneducated. He helped J. E. Drinkwater Bethune in the establishment of the Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in 1849. The School was subsequently known as the Bethune Female School. Vidyasagar remained the Honorary Secretary of the School till 1869. Many female schools were also opened by him in the districts and some of them were run at his own expense. Throughout his whole life he had taken keen interest for promoting the cause of women education in our country. For promoting Bengali education Vidyasagar established a number of Bengali schools. Besides, he wrote and published his pioneering work Barnaparichay for beginners in 1855.
The introduction of Western education was undoubtedly one of the main factors that caused the Indian awakening. Raja Rammohan Roy was the first Indian to feel the need for that education. Besides being an indirect supporter of the Hindu College, Rammohan was the founder of the Anglo-Hindu School in 1822. In the said School Western science, philosophy and literature were taught. Protesting against an official proposal to set up a Sanskrit College in Calcutta Rammohan had sent a memorial in 1823 to Lord Amherst, the then Governor-General of India. In the memorial Rammohan strongly advocated for the introduction of Western education in India. Another important contribution of Rammohan in the field of education was to draw the Christian Missions to this field. He requested the Church of Scotland Assembly to send out competent teachers for the spread of English education in India. He also welcomed Dr. Alexander Duff, the famous missionary educationist. Raja Radhakanta Deb was a promoter of English education and science. He had a big hand in framing the rules and regulations of the Hindu College. Radhakanta always insisted that study and morals of the students should be the primary concern of the teachers. Aware of the importance of the study of science Radhakanta contributed liberally to the fund raiser for sending Indian youths to England for higher studies in medicine and surgery. David Hare realized the need of Western learning and sciences among the people. He also felt that free-thinking, secularism and idealism were to be encouraged. Foundation of the Hindu College (presently Presidency University) in 1817 was a landmark in the history of the growth of Western education. David Hare was one of the founders of the Hindu College. In the same year (1817) he was instrumental in establishing the School Book Society. The Society took initiative to print and publish text books both in English and Bengali. David Hare also attached to the Ladies’ Society for Native Female Education. In 1818 David Hare founded the School Society. The Society did much for women’s education. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar also worked for the education of women, helping establish the Hindu Female School in 1849 and opening many other female schools.
Raja Rammohan Roy was the first Indian to feel the need for Western education, and as such came to be known as the ‘First Modern Man of India’.
Raja Radhakanta Deb was the leader of the conservatives of the contemporary Bengal who defended everything that passed as Hinduism. Yet Radhakanta was a promoter of English education and science. He had a big hand in framing the rules and regulations of the Hindu College. Radhakanta always insisted that study and morals of the students should be the primary concern of the teachers. Thus when it appeared that the teaching of Derozio exercised a subversive influence on the Hindu way of life he was dismissed under pressure from Radhakanta and his associates. At the same time one must remember that Radhakanta had deep respect for Tom Paine’s Age of Reason, which was the Bible of the Derozians. Aware of the importance of the study of science Radhakanta contributed liberally to the fund raiser for sending Indian youths to England for higher studies in medicine and surgery.
8. Describe the initiatives of Bethune in the spread of education. Describe the beginning of Calcutta Medical College and Calcutta University for spread of higher education. Who was Madhusudan Gupta ? Write briefly about him.
Answer: It was John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune who devoted himself to the cause of female education in India. He came to realize that unless elite people could be encouraged to send their girls to schools female education could not flourish. A humble beginning in this direction was made by Bethune when with the help of people like Ramgopal Ghosh, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and others he set up Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in Calcutta in 1849. Bethune donated all his movable and immovable property to the school. This was the first such effort in Calcutta (presently Kolkata) which had a major impact in the contemporary society of Bengal. Later on, in 1862-1863, the Hindu Female School was renamed as the Bethune School. Such was the role of Bethune spreading women’s education. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar also helped J. E. Drinkwater Bethune in the establishment of the Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in 1849.
In 1835 Calcutta Medical College was established to impart to the Indian students Western medical science. Calcutta Medical College of Bengal founded in 1835 was the first institution in India imparting systematic education in Western medicine. The first Principal of the Calcutta Medical College was Dr. M. J. Bramley (1835-1837). The College that was established by an order of 28 January 1835 ushered in a new era in the history of medical education in India. The stated objective was to train native youths aged between 14 and 20 in the principles and practices of medical science in accordance with the European model. This marked the end of official patronage of indigenous medical learning.
Foundation of universities in India was laid by Wood’s Dispatch of 1854. This was prepared by Sir Charles Wood, the then Secretary of State for India, and hence called Wood’s Dispatch. The Dispatch recommended the establishment of a university in each Presidency town (Calcutta, Bombay and Madras) on the model of the University of London. A University Committee was appointed for working out details of a scheme in accordance with the recommendation of the Dispatch. The University Committee submitted its report in 1856. A draft Bill for the University of Calcutta being approved by the Governor-General-in-Council the University Act was passed in 1857. Governor-General Lord Canning became the first Chancellor, and Sir James William Colvile its first Vice-Chancellor. Foundation of the University of Calcutta was followed by the introduction of Western education in a big way. This was one of the main factors that causes Indian awakening. A rapid increase in the number of students helped the cause of higher education.
In the annals of medical education in India the name of Pandit Madhusudan Gupta stands out as the person who first dissected a corpse at Calcutta Medical College. The Hindus were under taboo concerning the pollution in touching human corpses. Dwarkanath Tagore, in cooperation with others including Professor Henry Harry Goodeve inspired Madhusudan Gupta to overcome prejudices and fear of social obloquy (disgrace) and dissect dead bodies in the college. It was on 10 January 1836 that Madhusudan Gupta dissected a dead body. Madhusudan Gupta was a many-sided person of achievements. He had mastery over ancient Sanskrit texts on medicine. He also translated English textbooks on anatomy into Sanskrit, and devised his own terminologies in Sanskrit. Madhusudan was also concerned about the sanitary condition of the then city of Kolkata and suggested many a means as regards the hygiene of the city-dwellers. He taught for twenty-two years at the Calcutta Medical College, and died on 15 November 1856.
9. Write about the activities of Brahmo Samaj, particularly Debendranath Tagore, Kesheb Chandra Sen, Bijoy Krishna Goswami and others of Brahmo faith.
Answer: The Brahmo Samaj founded by Rammohan Roy became the centre of reformist movement in Bengal. Rammohan considered caste-system of the Hindu society as the greatest obstacle to the development of patriotic feeling amongst them. His Brahmo Samaj was meant to be a cradle for the evolution of a casteless society. Rammohan sincerely believed that improvement of society was not possible without the regeneration of the womenfolk. His anti-Sati movement constituted an important landmark in the history of reform movement of India. The object of the Samaj was promotion among different religious groups a faith in the unity of the divine and of man, as also inculcation of the spirit of tolerance.
After the death of Rammohan the cause of the Brahmo movement for social reform was taken up by Debendranath Tagore. He became the President of the Friends’ Social Welfare Society. The Society aimed at promoting female education, abolition of child-marriage and polygamy. It also carried on an agitation in favour of widow remarriage. Debendranath Tagore infused a new life into the Brahmo movement. In fact, the credit of transforming the Brahmo Samaj into a distinctive religion belongs to him. Compilation of the tenets of Brahmoism in two volumes by him gave a new dimension to Brahmoism as a new religion. Debendranath also sought to strengthen unity of the members of the Samaj by introducing certain rituals performance of which was obligatory. It was owing to the leadership of Debendranath that the Indians could withstand the onslaught of Westernization let loose by the British colonialism. Debendranath though not opposed to social reforms did not approve any programme of social reforms to be linked up with the propagation of Brahmo faith. As a consequence of the difference Keshab Chandra parted away and formed a new organization called the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865. The organization of Debendranath henceforth came to be known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj.
Attracted by the personality of Debendranath Tagore Keshab Chandra Sen joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857. Very soon Keshab Chandra became one of its stalwarts and dedicated himself to the promotion of social reform in the country. Drawn by the magnetic power of Keshab’s oration hundreds of young men subscribed to the Brahmo faith. Along with his missionary activities Keshab Chandra included a programme of social reform in the Brahmo movement. Another great achievement of Keshab Chandra was to organize welfare measures for the people in distress. For instance, he organized a volunteer party called Sangat Sabha in 1860 for famine relief. Keshab Chandra sincerely believed that no substantial progress in society would be possible without the emancipation of women. He was strongly in favour of widow remarriage. In order to generate public opinion in favour of the Hindu widow remarriage, a movement initiated by Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra actively helped in staging the Bidhava-Bibaha-Natak (in 1859). Keshab Chandra also roundly condemned polygamy and child-marriage. In a speech delivered he advocated that a ‘solid education’ should be given to women if their miseries were to be alleviated. He was thoroughly convinced that education alone that could help women playing a prominent role in life and society. Keshab Chandra did not like the idea of keeping the Brahmo movement within the confines of religious reforms. Rather reforms of the social evils were of greater importance to Keshab Chandra. He parted away from Debendranath and formed a new organization called the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865. Most of the followers of Keshab Chandra renounced his leadership and set up a separate Brahmo organization named Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in 1878. In 1881 Keshab Chandra formed yet another new religious faith under the name Nababidhan.
Bijoy Krishna Goswami entered the Brahmo movement around 1860. He accepted the leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen and soon became a successful Brahmo missionary. Due to some difference of opinion with Debendranath Tagore Bijoy Krishna followed Keshab Chandra into the newly founded Brahmo Samaj of India. Still later Bijoy Krishna, though did not leave Brahmoism, abandoned Keshab Chandra Sen and joined the newly founded Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj organization was founded under the initiative of Bijay Krishna Goswamee and Shib Nath Shastri. At a point of time Bijoy Krishna being disillusioned with the Brahmo movement felt attracted to Vaishnavism as taught by Sri Krishna Chaitanya. By 1889 he completely broke with the Brahmism and began his career as a spokesman of Vaishnavism.
The Brahmo movement played an important role in the regeneration of India. Originating in Bengal the movement spread far and wide in India. The Brahmo movement was not exclusively a religious movement, it brought within its fold the programme of social services. Another feature of the Brahmo movement was that the movement also concerned itself with the welfare of the common people as well as of labourers. In conclusion it may be said that the Brahmo movement upheld the human rights. Besides, the humanistic approach of the Brahmo movement helped to awaken the spirit of nationalism amongst the people of the country.
10. Write about the anti-Sati Movement. Ultimately Lord Bentink stopped the ‘Satidaha’ totally- describe how.
Answer: It was not until nineteenth century that an organized attempt was made against the barbarous practice of burning Hindu widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. The practice was known as Satidaha (burning of a Sati or widow). It is known from the official records that as many as 8000 such burnings took place between 1815 and 1828.
Much before the East India Company’s government in India took any effective measure to prohibit the Sati the Christian missionaries like the Danes of Serampore, the Dutch at Chinsura and the French at Chandernagore had prohibited the practice in the areas under their jurisdiction. Serampore missionaries under the leadership of William Carey personally made a study of the Hindu scriptures on which the practice of burning Hindu widow was said to be based. Carey was convinced that the practice of Sati was not a compulsory practice applicable to all the Hindu widows. Carey also submitted a Memorial to the Governor-General Lord Wellesley urging him to prohibit the practice. Amongst the Hindu Sanskrit scholars the most important opinion was expressed by Mrityunjoy Vidyalankar. He categorically stated that the practice of Sati was absolutely voluntary and was by no means compulsory.
It was Raja Rammohan Roy who launched a strong movement against the practice of Sati. On the authority of the Hindu shastras Rammohan proved that there is no religious sanction for the evil practice of Sati. He organized a fiery campaign against the practice through signature campaign. He also sent a petition to the British Parliament. His anti-Sati movement on in the teeth of conservative section of people constituted an important landmark in the history of reform movement of India. Contemporary journals like Sambad Kaumadi, Samachar Darpan and others with progressive ideas also took up the cause of the abolition of the practice of Sati. When the anti-Sati Movement was gathering momentum the orthodox section of Bengalee people did not sit quiet. Some newspapers also lent support to the orthodox view regarding the practice of Sati. Samachar Chandrika, for example, came out openly in support of the practice of Sati and favoured its continuance. Evidently, the Bengali public opinion came to be sharply divided into two opposing groups. The Christian missionaries, however, were very much opposed to the evil practice. They supported the opinion that favoured its abolition. Not only that, they also tried to mobilize the public opinion in England against the practice.
In 1823 the Court of Directors in London asked the Company’s government in India to consider the question of abolition of the practice of Sati. But Lord Amherst, the then Governor-Generall of India decided not to take any measure in this regard. Reluctance on the part of Lord Amherst was due to apprehension of a possible reaction in the native army if an abolition was enforced.
Lord William Bentinck was a ‘reformer by temperament’. He had made up his mind about the question of Sati before he had arrived in India as the Governor-General (1828). Armed with support from the Court of Directors, public opinion in England, opinion of a large number of judges and high officials in India Bentinck finally decided to abolish the practice once for all. Rammohan Roy, however, was not in favour of abolishing the practice in one go. Rather he advocated imposing checks on it and use of police. This caused misgivings because Rammohan was the leader of the agitation for the abolition of the practice and in the same breadth he opposed its immediate abolition. It is highly probable, as pointed out by Professor Bose that Rammohan opposed immediate abolition on the ground that it would violate the British government’s professed policy of religious neutrality. Lord Bentinck, the first Governor-General of India, however, went ahead with his plan and the practice of Sati was declared ‘illegal and punishable by the criminal courts’ by the Regulation XVII in 1829.
11. Write about Louis Henry Vivian Derozio and Young Bengal. What did he do? Write about widow remarriage movement. How far did it succeed? Write about Haji Mohammad Mohsin.
Answer: Louis Henry Vivian Derozio played a very important role in carrying on the modernizing movement in Bengal. He joined the Hindu College in 1826 at the age of 17 and served for three years before his premature death at 23. Even during this short period, Derozio moulded the minds of a number of brilliant students. To his students, he constantly encouraged thinking freely and questioning all authority. Under his influence, the Hindu College students drew their inspiration from Bacon, Hume and Tom Paine. Derozio promoted advanced ideas through his class lectures and by organizing student societies, such as the Academic Association established in 1828 and the Society for the Acquisition of General Knowledge started in 1838. Such societies organized debates and discussions on literature, history, philosophy and science. Through these activities, Derozio charmed his students and fostered an intellectual revolution in them.
Derozio had tremendous influence on his students, teaching them about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition. Under his radical influence, many students renounced the sacred thread (paita), gave up daily prayers, or recited passages from the Iliad instead of shastric mantras. Some shouted at Brahmin priests saying “We take beef.” In spite of his Indo-European lineage, Derozio looked upon India as his motherland, composed poems like ‘The Fakir of Jhungeera’ full of high patriotic feeling, and inculcated a deep love for the motherland among his students. He urged students to live and die for truth. The students of Derozio, collectively known as the Young Bengal or Derozians, intensely studied Western literature and played an important role in the social reform of contemporary India, speaking loudly about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition. The impetus to free thinking and the spirit of enquiry roused by Derozio led to the foundation of a number of debating clubs in Calcutta. However, the movement initiated by the Young Bengal was short-lived and lost its momentum by 1840.
Serious attempts were made by the enlightened middle class to introduce Hindu widow remarriage in the nineteenth century. A woman who has lost her husband by death and has not remarried is called a widow; in India, widows were considered a marginalized group, occupied a lower status, often had to stay away from families, and took shelter in charitable houses or ashramas. They were perceived as ‘inauspicious dependents on society’. Remarriage of widows amongst the Hindus was not common and was considered a taboo. Rammohan Roy was the earliest champion of women’s rights and sympathetic to the cause of widows but could not do anything concrete in legalizing their remarriage due to opposition from conservatives like Maharaja Krishnachandra of Nadia. From the thirties of the nineteenth century, the question gathered momentum, especially after Sati was declared illegal. Newspapers and journals published articles in support, and Christian missionaries took up the cause. The Samachar Darpan drew attention to the sufferings of Bengali widows. The Young Bengal also took up the issue in its paper Jnananveshan, appreciating the efforts of Motilal Seal and Haladhar Mallik. Another Derozian paper, the Bengal Spectator, expressed hope that prejudices regarding remarriage would soon be removed.
It was Iswarchandra Vidyasagar who began a campaign during the mid-nineteenth century. He waged a long struggle, realizing the campaign needed backing from Shastric instructions. Studying sacred books, he found a verse in the Parasara Samhita stating that a second marriage is sanctioned for women under certain conditions, including the death of her husband. In 1855, Vidyasagar published a pamphlet strongly refuting arguments by the orthodox imposing disability on widows for remarriage, causing a stir. Petitions from Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Nagpur, and other cities, signed by distinguished persons like Devendranath Tagore, Prasannakumar Tagore, and Iswarchandra Vidyasagar, were sent to the Legislative Council requesting an Act legalizing the remarriage of Hindu widows. The orthodox section submitted counter-petitions.
Strengthened by the movement, the British government in India finally passed Act XV (Hindu Widow Remarriage Act) on 26 July 1856. The first widow remarriage took place on 7 December 1856 between Srischandra Vidyaratna and Kalimati Devi, who was a widow of only eleven years. Thus, the movement succeeded in getting the practice legalized.
Haji Mohammad Mohsin was born in 1732 in Hooghly, West Bengal. After completing his education, he toured various places abroad. Shortly after his return, he became a wealthy man as his half-sister, Monoojan, left large property to him upon her death. Mohsin was a religious man who did not take to luxury; charity became the motto of his life. Importantly, in his charitable efforts, he made no distinction between Hindu and Muslim. He made liberal contributions for the spread of education in Bengal, including a remarkable gift to the Hooghly College (presently Hooghly Mohsin College), and Madrassas in Dacca, Chittagong, and many other places in present Bangladesh.
12. Write about nineteenth Century Bengal religious reforms. Write about the Brahmo movement and its Characteristics.
Answer: In the nineteenth century, Bengal saw several religious movements born. The most important were the Brahmo Movement, the idea of religious harmony propounded by Ramakrishna, and the religious reform movement initiated by Vivekananda.
The Brahmo Movement was a product of the revolt against Brahmanical orthodoxy, not a result of English education or Western thought. Rammohan Roy, although a Brahmin by caste, renounced idolatry even before acquiring knowledge of English. He challenged prevalent Hindu practices, arguing that belief in many gods and image worship opposed Vedic teachings. To preach his views, Rammohan opened the Brahmo Sabha or Brahmo Samaj on 20 August 1828. There is also an opinion that he founded a society called Atmiya Sabha in 1815, which transformed into the Brahmo Samaj. The Samaj aimed to promote faith in the unity of the divine and of man among different religious groups, and inculcate tolerance. Rammohan considered the caste system the greatest obstacle to patriotic feeling and intended the Brahmo Samaj to be a cradle for a casteless society. He believed societal improvement required the regeneration of womenfolk, and his anti-Sati movement was a landmark.
After Rammohan’s death, Debendranath Tagore took up the cause. He infused new life into the movement, transforming the Brahmo Samaj into a distinctive religion. His compilation of Brahmoism tenets gave it a new dimension. Debendranath introduced rituals to strengthen unity. Under his leadership, Indians could withstand the onslaught of Westernization.
The next phase began in 1857 when Keshab Chandra Sen joined the Brahmo Samaj, attracted by Debendranath Tagore’s personality. Keshab became a stalwart, dedicating himself to social reform. His orations drew hundreds of young men to the Brahmo faith. He included social reform programmes in the Brahmo movement and organized welfare measures, like the Sangat Sabha volunteer party for famine relief in 1860. Keshab sincerely believed that no substantial progress was possible without the emancipation of women. He strongly favoured widow remarriage and advocated ‘solid education’ for women. He also condemned polygamy and child marriage.
Differences arose between Debendranath and Keshab regarding the Samaj’s attitude towards social problems. Keshab prioritized social reforms over confining the movement to religious reforms. This led to a split, and Keshab formed the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865. Debendranath’s organization became known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Debendranath, though not opposed to social reforms, did not approve linking them with Brahmo faith propagation.
Bijoy Krishna Goswami entered the movement around 1860, becoming a successful missionary under Keshab Chandra Sen. Due to differences with Debendranath Tagore, Bijoy Krishna followed Keshab into the Brahmo Samaj of India. Later, disillusioned with Keshab’s concept of ‘avatarism’ and the Brahmo movement, Bijoy Krishna abandoned Keshab Chandra Sen (though not Brahmoism initially) and joined the newly founded Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in 1878. This further division occurred when most of Keshab’s followers renounced his leadership and set up the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj under the initiative of Bijoy Krishna Goswami and Shib Nath Shastri. Feeling attracted to Vaishnavism as taught by Sri Krishna Chaitanya, Bijoy Krishna completely broke with Brahmoism by 1889 and became a spokesman for Vaishnavism.
In 1881, Keshab Chandra formed yet another new religious faith named Nababidhan.
Characteristics of the Brahmo Movement:
- It originated as a revolt against Brahmanical orthodoxy and idolatry.
- It initially sought to reform Hinduism based on the Vedas, promoting monotheism.
- It evolved into a distinctive religion with its own tenets and rituals under Debendranath Tagore.
- It strongly advocated social reforms, including the abolition of the caste system, anti-Sati agitation, promotion of female education, and widow remarriage.
- It emphasized the regeneration and emancipation of women.
- It included programmes of social service and welfare, like famine relief.
- It concerned itself with the welfare of common people and labourers.
- It upheld human rights and helped awaken nationalism.
- The movement experienced divisions based on differing views on social reform and leadership (Adi Brahmo Samaj, Brahmo Samaj of India, Sadharan Brahmo Samaj).
The Brahmo movement played an important role in the regeneration of India, spreading from Bengal across the country.
13. Write about Ramakrishna Paramhansa Dev’s idea of ‘Sarva-Dharma Samannaya’. How far did Swami Vivekananda initiate ‘Navya Vedanta’. Describe Vivekananda’s vision of Hinduism. Who was Lalon Fakir. Write what you know about him.
Answer: Ramakrishna Paramhansa Deva of the Dakshineswar temple is considered a spiritual miracle. Though lacking formal education, his spiritual realizations were profound. Ramakrishna recognized differences among religions but was convinced that all religions lead to the same goal, concluding they are all valid and true. Regarding religious harmony or ‘Sarva Dharma Samannaya’, Ramakrishna stated he had practiced all religions—Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity—as well as different paths within Hindu sects. Through this, he found it was the same God towards whom all were directing their steps. He observed people quarrelling in the name of religion without realizing that He who is called Krishna is also Siva, and bears the name of Jesus and Allah. According to him, it is the same Rama with a thousand names. Thus, Ramakrishna’s message of religious harmony, or Sarva Dharma Samannaya, is first the recognition of differences among religions, and at the same time, the understanding that these differences are to be overcome and harmony established.
Swami Vivekananda developed the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta (Navya Vedanta) and laid the foundation of practical Vedanta. Neo-Vedanta, also called Neo-Hinduism, characterizes the interpretation of Hinduism developed during the nineteenth century. It is a re-establishment and reconstruction of Sankara’s Vedanta with modern arguments suited to modern man. Neo-Vedantism involves the re-statement, revaluation, reorientation, and reinterpretation of Advaita Vedanta using modern language, adjusting to modern life’s challenges. The practical applications of Neo-Vedanta are found in Sri Ramakrishna’s life and teachings, and it was left to Swami Vivekananda to develop these into the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta.
Vivekananda’s vision of Hinduism was divided into two parts: its glorious past and a degenerate present. He believed India’s past was golden, making her the teacher of the spiritual world. However, he saw the nineteenth-century Hindus as superstitious, performers of elaborate rituals, jealous of potential leaders, and lacking manliness, possessing ‘the malicious nature befitting a slave’. To neutralize this depressing state, Vivekananda offered new ideas. He spoke about the past glory, asserting that in the hoary past, Hindus acted as teachers to a world dependent on their spirituality. He presented Vedanta as an expression of Hindu spiritual supremacy and the one universal religion. He linked this concept to a two-fold division of the world: the spiritual East (India and Hinduism) and the materialistic West. While admitting the West had positive achievements like freedom, respect for women, emphasis on work, and material prosperity, he found it ‘gross, material, selfish and sensual’. He proposed a great ideal: the conquest of the world by India, possible through transferring Western technology integrated with Hindu culture, in return for which Hindus would transfer their spirituality to the West.
Lalon Fakir, variously called Lalon Sain or Lalon Shah, was a saint, lyricist, social reformer, and thinker. He believed in the power of music, and his songs inspired poets and social thinkers like Rabindranath Tagore. His songs rejected absolute standards of right and wrong. Greatly influenced by Sri Chaitanya’s social reform movement, Lalon, as a social reformer, rejected all distinctions of caste and creed. He is considered an icon of religious tolerance. His songs reflect an imaginary society where all religions and beliefs exist in harmony, rejecting attempts to divide people. Lalon composed numerous songs and poems describing his philosophy, appropriating various philosophical positions from Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, and Islamic traditions.
14. Write about the nature of Bengal Renaissance and make an assessment about it.
Answer: The intellectual awakening of Bengal in the nineteenth century is commonly known as the Bengal Renaissance. The term is derived from the Italian and European Renaissance of the fifteenth century, inevitably inviting comparison. Just as the Renaissance marked a new period in Europe, some scholars suggest the Bengal Renaissance heralded a new period in Bengal and India. The characteristic feature of the Bengal Renaissance was its tendency to lean heavily on the colonial British Raj.
However, an assessment reveals significant debate and criticism regarding its nature and comparison to the European Renaissance.
Opinions exist that there is no similarity at all between the two. The grounds for this view include:
- The European Renaissance had a much wider scope, giving birth to many-sided resurgences like the Geographical Discoveries, Reformation, and Humanism, which the Bengal Renaissance lacked the capacity to generate.
- The political frames were different. The European Renaissance began in an atmosphere of political freedom with independent states, whereas the intellectual Renaissance in Bengal occurred under colonial subjection.
Professor Amales Tripathi argued that equating the nineteenth-century Bengali cultural flowering with the European Renaissance was a fault, as it wasn’t possible to generate the same type in India. He dubbed the Bengal Renaissance as ‘ersatz’ (artificial or fake).
There’s a trend to see the ‘renaissance’ as a synthesis of liberalism and conservatism. However, Professor Susobhan Sarkar noted that a true synthesis fuses two opposites into a higher third entity, which couldn’t be found in the Bengal Renaissance. Thus, the conflict about the ‘renaissance’ persisted.
Admirers tried to find parallels with Russian intellectual history, but Professor Sumit Sarkar opined that the parallel ‘seems fruitful only in terms of the difference it reveals.’
Critics also point out that the educated community of Bengal, associated with the Renaissance, failed to understand the exploitative nature of British colonial rule. They were mainly interested in their immediate benefits. This perspective links the limitations of the Renaissance to phenomena like the Young Bengal movement, which, despite its initial radicalism, was short-lived and ultimately limited in its impact, possibly due to this narrow focus. If the colonial British rule was regressive, then critics argue the Bengal Renaissance, heavily leaning on it, was also bound to be retrogressive.
Extras
MCQs
1. Who published the Bengali periodical Bamabodhini in 1863?
A. Umesh Chandra Datta
B. Harish Chandra Mukherjee
C. Madhusudan Roy
D. Dinabandhu Mitra
Answer: A. Umesh Chandra Datta
63. Which movement of radical students is noted for having overlooked the exploitative nature of colonial rule?
A. Brahmo Movement
B. Young Bengal
C. Bengal Renaissance
D. Religious Reforms
Answer: B. Young Bengal
Questions and Answers
1. When was Bamabodhini first published?
Answer: Bamabodhini was a Bengali periodical published in 1863.
36. Explain the nature of the Bengal Renaissance, providing arguments for and against comparing it to the European Renaissance.
Answer: The intellectual awakening of Bengal in the nineteenth century is commonly known as the Bengal Renaissance. The term, obviously, has been derived from the Italian and for that matter European Renaissance of fifteenth century. Thus a comparison between the European Renaissance and that of Bengal is inevitable. There was a dawn of a new period in Europe through the Renaissance. In the same vein some of the scholars preferred to say that through the Bengal Renaissance there was the emergence of a new period in Bengal as also in India.
Still there are others who believe that there is hardly any resemblance between the European and Bengal Renaissance. An opinion regarding the Bengal Renaissance is that there is no similarity at all between the two. The grounds are:
(i) The European Renaissance had a much wider scope than that of Bengal counterpart.
(ii) The European Renaissance gave birth to many-sided resurgence, such as, the Geographical Discoveries, Reformation, Humanism and so on. The Bengal Renaissance did not have any such capacity to generate.
(iii) The argument advanced by them is that the characteristic feature of the Bengal Renaissance was to lean heavily on the colonial British Raj. Now, if the colonists British rule was regressive, then they say, the Bengal Renaissance was also bound to be retrogression.
(iv) In the two Renaissances the political frame was also different in many ways. For example, in Europe the Renaissance began in an atmosphere of political freedom. The European states were free and independent. But in India, and for that matter in Bengal the intellectual Renaissance flowed under colonial subjection.
Professor Amales Tripathi did not hesitate to say that those who sought to equate the cultural flowering during the nineteenth century Bengal would commit a fault. In fact, he argued that it was not possible to generate in India the type of the Renaissance found in Europe. Thus in his book The Extremist Challenge Professor Tripathi dubbed Bengal Renaissance as ersatz (artificial or fake).
There is a trend to find in the ‘renaissance’ a synthesis of liberalism and conservatism. But for Professor Susobhan Sarkar a synthesis is a fusion of two opposites into a third higher entity. But in Bengal Renaissance the higher third could not be found; and thus the conflict about the ‘renaissance’, according to Prof. S. Sarkar, persisted and is still continuing.
The admirers of the nineteenth century ‘renaissance’ tried to find a parallel with the Russian intellectual history of the same period. Professor Sumit Sarkar is of the opinion that the parallel ‘seems fruitful only in terms of the difference it reveals.’
Those who are critical of the thought of a Renaissance in Bengal also point out that the educated community of Bengal failed to understand the exploitative nature of the British colonial rule. They were interested mainly looking at their immediate benefits. Just that is what had happened with the Young Bengal.
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
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