Federalism: AHSEC Class 11 Political Science notes

Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 11 (first year) Political Science textbook, chapter 7 Federalism, which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed. 

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Summary

Federalism in India is a complex and unique system that combines elements of both federal and unitary structures. The Indian Constitution describes the country as a “Union of States,” indicating a strong central government while allowing for regional autonomy. This dual nature stems from historical, political, and social factors that influenced the framers of the Constitution.

The Constitution establishes a dual polity with a central government and state governments, each operating within its sphere of authority. Powers are distributed between the Centre and the states through three lists: the Union List, the State List, and the Concurrent List. This division ensures that both levels of government can function independently within their designated areas.

Indian federalism has several federal features. Firstly, it has a written and rigid Constitution that clearly delineates the powers of the Centre and the states. Secondly, the Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the Constitution, resolving disputes between the Centre and the states. Additionally, the Constitution provides for a dual system of government and a bicameral legislature, with the Rajya Sabha representing the states.

Despite these federal features, India also exhibits strong unitary characteristics. During emergencies, the Centre can assume greater control over state functions, effectively centralizing power. The President can impose President’s Rule in a state, thereby dissolving the state government and assuming direct control. The Centre also holds significant financial powers, including the authority to allocate resources to states, which can influence state policies.

The appointment of state governors by the President further strengthens the Centre’s influence over states. Governors act as representatives of the Centre and have the power to reserve bills passed by state legislatures for presidential consideration. This central oversight can limit state autonomy.

India’s federal structure is designed to maintain national unity while accommodating regional diversity. The system allows for cooperation and coordination between the Centre and the states, but it also provides mechanisms for the Centre to assert control when necessary. This balance ensures that the country can address both national and regional interests, adapting to changing circumstances while preserving its unity.

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Essay Type

1. Write a note on Indian federalism.

Answer: Indian federalism is a complex and evolving system. Article 1 of the Constitution of India describes India as a “Union of States” instead of a “Federation.” This choice of terminology reflects the framers’ intention to create a strong and indissoluble union. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar emphasized that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement between states, and therefore, no state has the right to secede. The Constitution itself is the result of an agreement among its components. While the Constitution divides powers between the central government and the states, it also includes provisions that strengthen the central government’s authority. This has led to debates about the true nature of Indian federalism, with some scholars arguing that it is more unitary than federal.

2. Describe the federal characteristics of the Constitution of India.

Answer: The Constitution of India has certain federal features. These features are:

• India has a dual polity. It has two sets of government, one is the federal or national government and others are the government of the States. They exist of their own constitutional right.
• The Indian Constitution has made a clear division of powers into three lists—the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. So, each government performs its allotted duties.
• Another federal feature is that the Constitution is written and rigid, Both the national and the State governments derive their power from this supreme law of the land.
• The Constitution of India also provides for a supreme judiciary. The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the Constitution. It contains the Union and the States to the spheres allotted to them. The above features of the Constitution of India make it clear that the Indian Constitution is federal in form.

3. Mention two federal and two non-federal characters of Indian Constitution.

Answer: Federal characters:

• India has a dual polity. It has two sets of government, one is the federal or national government and others are the government of the States. They exist of their own constitutional right.
• The Indian Constitution has made a clear division of powers into three lists—the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. So, each government performs its allotted duties.

Non-federal characters:

• Single Citizenship: In other federal systems, the citizens are granted double citizenship. In India, as in Canada and Burma, there is only one set of citizenship, that is the Indian citizenship. The Constitution has provided single citizenship to curb provincialism and to promote the feeling of oneness among the people. It guarantees equal opportunities to all citizens.
• Appointment of Governors by the President: The Governor of a State is appointed by the President. He remains in office during the pleasure of the President. The State has no right to remove the Governor. The Governor also acts as a Central agent in the State Government. In the American federation, the Governor of a State is elected by the people of that State.

4. How far India is a Federation? Explain five unitary features of Indian Federation.

Answer: India has a federal structure but is unitary in spirit. The Constitution-makers considered the experience of the United States and other federal countries, alongside India’s pluralist society and economic problems, to create a strong Centre. Scholars like Mr. H. V. Pataskar and K. M. Munshi view India as more unitary than federal. Prof. K. C. Wheare describes India as “a unitary State with subsidiary federal features rather than a federal State with subsidiary unitary features.” Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, and others also see India as having a federal structure with a strong bias towards the Centre. Thus, India is a federation during normal times but can become unitary during emergencies. Indian federalism is unique, borrowing elements from both federal and unitary systems to suit the country’s needs.

The five unitary features of the Indian Federation are:

• Unequal Representation of States in the Rajya Sabha: States have unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha based on population, which represents people rather than states.
• Distribution of Powers Unfavourable: The Centre has exclusive control over the Union list and predominance over the concurrent list. Residuary powers are also with the Centre, and it can make laws on state subjects under certain circumstances.
• Proclamation of Emergency: During an emergency, the Union Government becomes all-powerful, controlling the states and passing laws on state subjects, making India unitary in character.
• Single Citizenship: India has only one set of citizenship to curb provincialism and promote unity, unlike other federal systems which grant double citizenship.
• Single Constitution: The Constitution of India is also the Constitution of the States, except Jammu and Kashmir. States cannot have their own Constitutions or secede from the Union.

5. Explain in brief the unitary characteristics of the Indian Constitution.

Answer: The unitary characteristics of the Indian Constitution are:

• Constituent Units are Destructible: The Indian Parliament can alter state boundaries, create new states, or even abolish existing ones, a power not usually found in true federations.
• Unequal Representation of States in the Rajya Sabha: Unlike many federations where the upper house represents states equally, India’s Rajya Sabha allocates representation based on population, giving more populous states greater influence.
• Distribution of Powers Unfavourable: The Constitution grants the central government significant control over legislative and administrative matters. The Union List, containing subjects under the central government’s exclusive domain, includes crucial areas like defense, foreign affairs, and currency.
• Proclamation of Emergency: During an emergency, the central government assumes extraordinary powers, effectively transforming India into a unitary state. The central government can issue directives to states, and the Parliament can legislate on subjects ordinarily under state jurisdiction.
• Single Citizenship: Unlike countries like the USA with dual citizenship (state and federal), India provides only a single Indian citizenship, fostering a sense of national unity.
• Single Constitution: Except for Jammu and Kashmir (which has its own Constitution, albeit under the Indian Constitution’s framework), all other states function under the single Constitution of India, limiting their autonomy.
• Appointment of Governors by the President: The President of India appoints state Governors, who act as representatives of the central government. This provision allows for central influence in state affairs.
• Appointment of Inquiry Commissions: The central government can appoint inquiry commissions to investigate state government matters, potentially impacting state autonomy.
• Centre’s Right to Give Directions: The central government can issue directives to states on various matters. Non-compliance can lead to central intervention, including the imposition of President’s Rule (Article 356).
• President Can Withhold Assent to State Bills: The President of India has the power to withhold assent to bills passed by state legislatures, effectively vetoing state laws.

6. Describe the unfederal characteristics of the Constitution of India.

Answer: The unfederal characteristics of the Constitution of India are:

• Constituent Units are Destructible: The Indian Parliament can alter state boundaries, create new states, or even abolish existing ones, a power not usually found in true federations.
• Unequal Representation of States in the Rajya Sabha: Unlike many federations where the upper house represents states equally, India’s Rajya Sabha allocates representation based on population, giving more populous states greater influence.
• Distribution of Powers Unfavourable: The Constitution grants the central government significant control over legislative and administrative matters. The Union List, containing subjects under the central government’s exclusive domain, includes crucial areas like defense, foreign affairs, and currency.
• Proclamation of Emergency: During an emergency, the central government assumes extraordinary powers, effectively transforming India into a unitary state. The central government can issue directives to states, and the Parliament can legislate on subjects ordinarily under state jurisdiction.
• Single Citizenship: Unlike countries like the USA with dual citizenship (state and federal), India provides only a single Indian citizenship, fostering a sense of national unity.
• Single Constitution: Except for Jammu and Kashmir (which has its own Constitution, albeit under the Indian Constitution’s framework), all other states function under the single Constitution of India, limiting their autonomy.
• Appointment of Governors by the President: The President of India appoints state Governors, who act as representatives of the central government. This provision allows for central influence in state affairs.
• Appointment of Inquiry Commissions: The central government can appoint inquiry commissions to investigate state government matters, potentially impacting state autonomy.
• Centre’s Right to Give Directions: The central government can issue directives to states on various matters. Non-compliance can lead to central intervention, including the imposition of President’s Rule (Article 356).
• President Can Withhold Assent to State Bills: The President of India has the power to withhold assent to bills passed by state legislatures, effectively vetoing state laws.

7. Write a short note on financial relations between the Union and the States.

Answer: The financial relations between the Union and the States are discussed below:

• Taxes levied and collected by the States: land revenue, taxes on agricultural income, estate duty, tax on building, excise on opium and alcoholic spirits.
• Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States: passenger and goods tax, taxes on newspapers.
• Taxes levied by the Union and collected and appropriated by the States: Stamp Duties, excise on medicine and toilet preparations.
• Taxes levied and collected by the Union but distributed between the Union and the States: taxes on income other than agricultural, duties on excise other than those on medicinal and toilet preparations.
• Taxes levied and collected and appropriated by the Government of India alone: railways, revenues earned from railways, posts and telegraphs, wireless and broadcasting, foreign exchange, currency.
• The President can alter the distribution of income tax revenues between the Centre and the States.
• The Centre can grant loans and grants-in-aid to State Governments.
• The Union Government can borrow money on the security of the Consolidated Fund of India. State Governments need Union sanction to raise loans.
• The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, appointed by the President, audits State accounts.
• The President appoints a Finance Commission every five years to recommend the distribution of net tax proceeds between the Centre and the States and advise on grants-in-aid distribution.

8. Discuss Union-State relations on legislative matters.

Answer: The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution contains three lists of subjects: the Union List, the State List and the Concurrent List. Residuary powers belong to the Centre. The Parliament of India has the power to make law on any matter in the Union List, with the States having no share in this list.

The State Legislatures can make law on any item in the State List, but under certain circumstances, the Parliament can legislate on these items. Both the Union and State Legislatures have jurisdiction over the Concurrent List, but the law of the Centre shall prevail if there is a conflict.

Central Control in Legislative Matters: Article 246(3) of the Constitution lays down that the State Legislature has the exclusive power to make laws on items in the State List, but many Articles empower Parliament to make laws even on these matters or empower the President to veto State Legislature bills. Situations in which Parliament may make a law on a State List subject include:

• Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a 2/3 majority in national interest (Article 249).
• During the period of emergency (Article 250).
• On request by two or more States (Article 252).
• To implement international treaties or agreements (Article 253).
• Imposing emergency in a State (Article 356).
• Bills reserved for the consideration of the President.
• Bills introduced with the previous consent of the President.
• Under the direction of the Planning Commission.

Although certain subjects are in the State List, Parliament can intervene on many grounds, strengthening the Centre’s position. Judicial interpretation has also added to the legislative power of the Centre. The Union Parliament is very powerful in legislative matters, with full authority over the Union List, the Concurrent List, and the residuary powers.

9. Narrate the legislative relations between Centre and States in India.

Answer: The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution contains three lists of subjects: the Union List, the State List, and the Concurrent List. Residuary powers belong to the Centre. The Parliament of India can make laws on any matter in the Union List and is the supreme authority in this regard. The State Legislatures can make laws on items in the State List, but under certain circumstances, the Parliament can also legislate on these items, limiting the State Legislatures.

Both the Union and State Legislatures have jurisdiction over the Concurrent List. In the event of a conflict, the law of the Centre prevails, and the State Law becomes void to the extent of the inconsistency. If a State Legislature passes a bill on a Concurrent List subject that receives the President’s assent, the law remains valid until Parliament enacts subsequent legislation.

Certain situations allow the Parliament to make laws on State List subjects:

• Article 249: Rajya Sabha may pass a resolution by a 2/3 majority declaring national interest.
• Article 250: Parliament can legislate on State List subjects during emergencies.
• Article 252: Parliament can legislate if two or more States request it.
• Article 253: Parliament can legislate to implement international treaties or agreements.
• Article 356: Parliament legislates when emergency is imposed in a State.
• Bills passed by State Legislatures may be reserved for the President’s consideration.
• Certain bills require the President’s prior consent.
• Under the Planning Commission’s direction, States must pass legislation on State subjects.

Judicial interpretation has added to the Centre’s legislative power, making the Union Parliament very powerful in legislative matters. The Constitution has vested significant legislative powers in the Centre, allowing it to control the States as needed.

10. Mention four causes for dominance of the Centre in India.

Answer: The four causes for dominance of the Centre in India are:

• The distribution of powers is highly unfavourable from the point of view of federalism. The Centre has exclusive control over the Union list, predominance over the concurrent list, and the residuary powers.
• Emergency powers vested upon the President under Articles 352, 356, and 360 make the Union Government all-powerful during emergencies, allowing it to control the states extensively.
• The Union Government’s right to give directions to the States means that failure to comply can lead to a state of emergency under Article 356, allowing the Centre to supercede the State Government.
• The Constitution of India is also the Constitution of the States. Other States do not have the right to have their own Constitutions and cannot secede from the federation.

11. Analyse the distribution of powers made in the Constitution of India.

Answer: The distribution of powers between the Centre and the States in India is based on the principle of federalism. The Constitution of India adopts a federal structure with a strong unitary bias. This distribution is outlined in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, which contains three lists of subjects: the Union List, the State List, and the Concurrent List.

• Union List: This list contains subjects of national importance such as defense, foreign affairs, banking, communications, and atomic energy. The Union Government has exclusive powers to legislate on these subjects.
• State List: This list includes subjects of local or state importance such as police, trade, agriculture, and irrigation. The State Governments have exclusive powers to legislate on these subjects.
• Concurrent List: This list includes subjects of common interest to both the Union and State Governments such as education, marriage and divorce, bankruptcy and insolvency, and criminal law. Both the Union and State Governments can legislate on these subjects. However, in case of a conflict between Union and State law on a Concurrent List subject, the Union law prevails.

Additionally, the Constitution vests the residuary powers of legislation with the Union Government. The President can also assign any subject not mentioned in any of the three lists to the Union Government.

12. Comment on the three lists of subjects enumerated in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India.

Answer: The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution contains three lists of subjects:

Union List: Originally containing 97 subjects, such as Defence, Foreign Affairs, Currency and Coinage, Banking and Insurance, Customs Duties, Diplomatic and Consular Relations, Railways, Airways, Foreign Trade, Income Tax, Corporate Tax, Mines, and Oil fields.

State List: Initially with 66 subjects, including Law and Order, Administration of Justice and Jail, Public Health, Sanitation, Trade and Industry within the State, Revenue, Subordinate Courts, Forests, Fisheries, Gas and Gas works, Protection of wild animals and birds.

Concurrent List: Initially with 47 subjects, now consisting of 52, including Legal System, Economic Planning, Social Security, Trade and Industry, Electricity, Education, Printing and Newspapers, Books, Marriage, Divorce, Trade Union and Labour Welfare, Price Control, Drugs and Poison, Vagrancy and Lunacy.

Residuary Powers: Subjects not included in the three lists are called residuary powers and are vested in the Union Government.

The Union Parliament has more powers than the States. The subjects in the State list are less important than those in the Union list. Residuary powers add to the strength of the Union Government, making it more centralised.

The Union Parliament can legislate on any subject in the Union List. The State Legislatures can pass laws on subjects in the State list. Both Union and State Legislatures can legislate on concurrent subjects, but Union Law prevails in case of conflict. Under certain circumstances, the Union Parliament can also legislate on State list subjects.

13. Explain why India is called a ‘Union of States.’ Why the term ‘Union’ has been used in place of ‘Federation’?

Answer: Article 1 of the Constitution of India describes India as a Union of States instead of a Federation. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar explained that the term ‘Union’ was used to make it clear that the Indian Federation is not the result of an agreement by the States to join in a Federation and that no State has the right to secede from it. The Federation is a Union because it is indestructible. The Constitution is the result of an agreement amongst its various component units, and the country and the people have been divided into different States for the convenience of administration. India is one integral whole, its people a single people. The Constitution provides an indestructible federation, ensuring unity, which is the most essential point of Indian federalism. That is why India is called a “Union of States”.

14. Explain two federal and four unfederal features of the Indian Federation.

Answer: Two federal and four unfederal features of the Indian Federation are:

Federal features:

• India has a dual polity with two sets of government: the federal or national government and the State governments.
• The Indian Constitution divides powers into three lists—the Union list, the State list, and the Concurrent list.

Unfederal features:

• The Centre has exclusive control over the Union list and predominance over the concurrent list. The residuary powers are also with the Centre.
• During an emergency, the Union Government can control the states completely, making India unitary in character.
• India has single citizenship, promoting a feeling of oneness and guaranteeing equal opportunities.
• The Governor of a State is appointed by the President and acts as a Central agent in the State Government.

15. Write any five important characteristics of the Indian Federation.

Answer: Five important characteristics of the Indian Federation are:

• The Indian federal system sets up a dual polity with a Union Government at the Centre and State Governments at the periphery. Each Government is supreme in its own sphere.
• Indian federalism is horizontal with a strong unitary bias. The position of the Union Government is stronger than that of the States, serving as safeguards against disintegration.
• Flexibility characterizes the system, allowing conversion into a unitary model during emergencies without Constitutional amendment. The Centre remains strong even in normal times.
• Indian federalism promotes co-operation between the Centre and the States in matters of common interest. Various agencies ensure collaboration without imposing decisions on each other.
• The system is influenced by a single-dominant party structure. The Centre maintains control over financial resources and planning, although regional parties have gained power in some States.

Short Answer Type I

1. Mention two features of Civil Services in India.

Answer: The Constitution of India provides for common all-India services. Officers belonging to the Indian Police Service and the Indian Administrative Service are appointed by the Union Government. They are subject to the control of the Central Government but serve State Governments, drawing their salaries and allowances from them. The Election Commission and Comptroller and Auditor-General of India are authorities of the Centre but also serve State Governments.

2. Point out any four arguments to justify that India is a ‘quasi-federal State.’

Answer: Four arguments to justify that India is a ‘quasi-federal state’ are:

• States have unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha, representing people rather than states based on population.
• The distribution of powers favours the Centre, which controls the Union list, predominates the concurrent list, and holds residuary powers.
• Emergency provisions under Articles 352, 356, and 360 make the Union Government all-powerful, reducing states’ autonomy.
• Under Article 356, the President can take over a state’s administration, reducing its autonomy during emergencies.

3. Mention five federal characteristics of the Indian Constitution.

Answer: Five federal characteristics of the Indian Constitution are:

• Dual polity with a federal and state government existing constitutionally.
• Clear division of powers into Union, State, and Concurrent lists.
• Written and rigid Constitution, deriving power from it.
• Supreme judiciary acts as the guardian of the Constitution.
• Constitutionally defined federal form.

4. Mention five unfederal elements of the Indian Constitution.

Answer: Five unfederal elements of the Indian Constitutio are:

• Constituent units can be altered or destroyed by Parliament.
• Unequal representation of states in the Rajya Sabha.
• Centre has control over Union and Concurrent lists and residuary powers.
• Emergency provisions allow Union Government to dominate states.
• Single citizenship for the whole country.

5. Write a note on Union List of Subjects.

Answer: The Union List originally contained 97 subjects. Key subjects include Defence, Foreign Affairs, Currency, Banking, Customs Duties, Diplomatic Relations, Citizenship, Census, Posts, Telegraphs, Railways, Ports, Foreign Trade, Income Tax, Corporate Tax, Mines, and Inter-State Migration. The executive power of the Union extends to these subjects under Article 73 of the Constitution.

6. Write a short note on State List of Subjects.

Answer: The State List originally had 66 subjects. After the 42nd Amendment, 5 subjects were removed. Important subjects include Law and Order, Administration of Justice, Public Health, Sanitation, Trade within the State, Revenue, Subordinate Courts, Forests, Fisheries, and Gas works.

7. What is meant by Residuary Powers? Who has been vested with this power?

Answer: Residuary powers refer to subjects not included in the three lists of the Seventh Schedule. These powers are vested in the Union Government.

8. Write a note on Concurrent List.

Answer: The Concurrent List originally had 47 subjects, with 5 added from the State List by the 42nd Amendment. It now includes 52 subjects such as Legal System, Economic Planning, Social Security, Trade and Industry, Electricity, Education, Marriage, Divorce, Trade Union and Labour Welfare, Price Control, Drugs and Poison.

9. Mention four special circumstances under which the Parliament can legislate over State subjects.

Answer: Four special circumstances under which the Parliament can legislate over State subjects are:

• Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a 2/3 majority declaring national interest (Article 249).
• During the period of emergency (Article 250).
• Request by two or more States (Article 252).
• To implement international treaties or agreements (Article 253).

10. Name two conditions under which the Union Parliament can pass laws over State Subjects.

Answer: Two conditions under which the Union Parliament can pass laws over State Subjects are:

• During emergency under Article 356.
• Bills introduced in the State Legislature with the previous consent of the President, especially on Trade and Commerce.

11. Write a note on co-operative federation.

Answer: Indian federal system may be termed as co-operative federalism. Indian federalism wants the collaboration of both the Centre and the States in various matters of common interest. There are various agencies for the maintenance of collaboration. The working of different agencies proves that neither the Centre nor the States can impose decisions on the other .

12. Write a note on centralised federation.

Answer: Indian federalism is horizontal with strong unitary bias. Though there is division of power in the Constitution, the position of the Union Government has been made stronger than that of the States. In no other federation the centre is so strong. It is perhaps the strongest centre. The unitary elements are great safeguards against the forces of disintegration in the country.

13. Explain the bargaining character of Indian federalism.

Answer: The bargaining character of Indian federalism emerges when states assert their rights and resist central dictates, leading to competition. This competitive spirit allows states to bargain with the Centre for maximum benefits. Examples include states not implementing certain Union laws and the Centre yielding to regional parties’ pressures.

14. Point out the competitive character of Indian federalism.

Answer: The competitive character of Indian federalism is evident when states assert their rights against the Centre’s dictates, fostering a competitive spirit. This competition enables states to bargain for benefits. Instances include states not adhering to Union laws and the Centre accommodating regional parties’ demands.

15. How far is India federal in structure?

Answer: India combines federal and unitary features. The structure is federal, but unitary elements are more prevalent. The Constitution favours a strong Centre to manage India’s diverse and complex society. Scholars argue India is more unitary than federal, with the Centre holding significant power, especially during emergencies. This quasi-federal system balances central and state interests.

Short Answer Type II

1. Explain three federal characteristics of the Indian Constitution.

Answer: Three federal characteristics of the Indian Constitution are:

• India has a dual polity. It has two sets of government, one is the federal or national government and others are the government of the States. They exist of their own constitutional right.
• The Indian Constitution has made a clear division of powers into three lists—the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. So, each government performs its allotted duties.
• The Constitution of India also provides for a supreme judiciary. The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the Constitution. It contains the Union and the States to the spheres allotted to them.

2. Mention three federal and one non-federal features of Indian Federation.

Answer: Three federal features of Indian Federation are:

• India has a dual polity. It has two sets of government, one is the federal or national government and others are the government of the States. They exist of their own constitutional right.
• The Indian Constitution has made a clear division of powers into three lists—the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. So, each government performs its allotted duties.
• Another federal feature is that the Constitution is written and rigid. Both the national and the State governments derive their power from this supreme law of the land.

One non-federal feature of Indian Federation is:

• Indian federalism is horizontal with a strong unitary bias. Though there is a division of power in the Constitution, the position of the Union Government has been made stronger than that of the States.

3. Give three arguments in favour of India as a Federation.

Answer: Three arguments in favour of India as a Federation are:

• India has a dual polity. It has two sets of government, one is the federal or national government and others are the government of the States. They exist of their own constitutional right.
• The Indian Constitution has made a clear division of powers into three lists—the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. So, each government performs its allotted duties.
• The Constitution of India also provides for a supreme judiciary. The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the Constitution. It contains the Union and the States to the spheres allotted to them.

4. Write any three functions of the Election Commission of India.

Answer: Three functions of the Election Commission of India are:

• Supervises the conduct of elections to Parliament and State Legislatures.
• Prepares the electoral rolls and updates them periodically.
• Determines the code of conduct to be followed by the political parties and candidates during elections.

5. Write three functions of the Finance Commission.

Answer: Three functions of the Finance Commission are:

• To recommend the distribution of the net proceeds of taxes between the Centre and the States.
• To determine the principles which should govern the grants-in-aid of the revenues of the States out of the Consolidated Fund of India.
• To make recommendations to the President as to the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the Panchayats and Municipalities in the State.

6. Name three subjects included in the State List.

Answer: Three subjects included in the State List are:

• Police
• Public health and sanitation
• Agriculture

7. Which article of the Constitution of India deals with the process of amendment?

Answer: Article 368

8. Write any three subjects of the Union List.

Answer: Three subjects of the Union List are:

• Defence
• Foreign affairs
• Atomic energy

9. In India which list of division of power the subject “Education” is included?

Answer: Concurrent List

10. Mention three subjects of the Concurrent List.

Answer: Three subjects of the Concurrent List are:

• Criminal law
• Criminal procedure
• Marriage and divorce

11. Mention the Lists of subjects of the Constitution.

Answer: The Lists of subjects of the Constitution are:

• Union List
• State List
• Concurrent List

12. Which schedule of the Constitution of India deals with Distribution of Powers?

Answer: Seventh Schedule

13. Mention three circumstances in which the Central legislature can make Laws on the subject of State List.

Answer: During national interest as per Article 249, during an emergency as per Article 250, and on request by two or more States as per Article 252.

14. What are the important divisions of constitutional powers between the Centre and State in India?

Answer: Powers are divided into three lists: Union List with subjects like Defence and Foreign Affairs; State List with subjects like Public Health and Police; Concurrent List with subjects like Education and Marriage.

15. Write any three powers of the Union Government over the States.

Answer: Ensuring compliance with laws made by Parliament (Article 256), preventing states from impeding Union’s executive power (Article 257), and President entrusting functions to State governments (Article 258).

16. Name the three parts of the Planning Commission.

Answer: Chairman, Deputy Chairman, and Members.

17. Name the members of the North-Eastern Council.

Answer: Governors and Chief Ministers of the North-Eastern States, and one member appointed by the President.

18. How many subjects are there in the ‘State list’?

Answer: Originally 66 subjects, with 5 subjects removed by the 42nd Constitution Amendment Act.

19. Write three functions of the Zonal Councils.

Answer: Discussing common concerns, advising on economic and social planning, and addressing border disputes and inter-state transport.

20. Mention two federal features of the Indian Constitution.

Answer: Dual polity with national and state governments, and division of powers into Union, State, and Concurrent lists.

21. Mention three non-federal features of the Indian Constitution.

Answer: Proclamation of Emergency powers, single citizenship, and President-appointed Governors acting as Central agents.

22. Mention three situations when Parliament can make laws on subjects included in the state list?

Answer: National interest (Article 249), during emergency (Article 250), and on request by two or more States (Article 252).

23. Explain three functions of the Union Council of Ministers.

Answer: Formulating and implementing policies, advising the President, and deciding on administration and legislative proposals.

24. Mention two unitary features of the Indian Constitution.

Answer: States cannot secede or have their own Constitutions, except Jammu and Kashmir, which is also under the Indian Constitution.

Objective Type

(a) Fill in the blanks:

1. India is a __________ of States.

Answer: Union

2. The Constitution of India has used the word __________ in place of Federation.

Answer: Union

3. There is a __________ Union Government in India.

Answer: strong

4. India has __________ polity.

Answer: dual

5. Residuary power are vested in the __________.

Answer: Centre

6. India is federal in structure but __________ in spirit.

Answer: unitary

7. India is unitary in structure but __________ in spirit.

Answer: federal

8. Concurrent List consists of __________ subjects.

Answer: 52

9. State List consists of __________ subjects.

Answer: 61

10. Lists of subjects are enumerated in the __________ Schedule.

Answer: Seventh

11. There are __________ lists of subjects.

Answer: three

(b) Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’:

1. India is a model federation.

Answer: No

2. Indian federalism is called co-operative federalism.

Answer: Yes

3. The States in India are always autonomous.

Answer: No

4. The Union is indestructible.

Answer: Yes

5. The Constitution of India is unitary in spirit.

Answer: Yes

6. Indian Constitution is not unitary in spirit.

Answer: No

(c) Answer the following:

1. Which Article of the Constitution of India has given special status of Jammu and Kashmir?

Answer: Article 370

2. Is the word ‘federation’ mentioned in the Indian Constitution?

Answer: No

3. Is India a genuine federation?

Answer: No

4. By what terms is the Indian Federation constitutionally known?

Answer: Union of States

5. How many list of subjects are there in the Constitution?

Answer: Three

6. Who can make laws on State Subjects?

Answer: Both the Union Parliament and the State Legislatures

7. Who enjoys the residuary powers?

Answer: The Union Government

8. To which authority ‘residuary power’ is vested in India?

Answer: Centre

9. Is there provision of dual citizenship in India?

Answer: No

10. Who is responsible for the execution of international treaties?

Answer: The Union Government

11. Can the Centre legislate on a State Subject?

Answer: Yes

12. Are the States dependent on the Centre?

Answer: Yes

13. Who makes laws for a State which is under State Emergency?

Answer: The Union Parliament

14. Is the Central Government of India powerful?

Answer: Yes

15. “The Central Government is more powerful than the State Government in India.” Give two reasons in support of this statement.

Answer:

(i) The Union Government enjoys more powers and functions.

(ii) The States are financially dependent on the Centre.

16. Is there a centralising tendency in the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Yes

17. Can the Centre direct the States?

Answer: Yes

18. Is the State bound to follow central directives?

Answer: Yes

19. How many lists of subjects exist in the Constitution of India for division of powers between the Centre and the States?

Answer: Three

20. Which organ of the Central government can execute the residuary power?

Answer: Executive

21. Mention the name of the only State of the Indian Federation having its own Constitution.

Answer: Jammu and Kashmir

22. Cauvery water dispute is the major issue between

(a) Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (b) Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh (c) Maharastra and Karnataka (d) Chandigarh and Punjab

Answer: (a) Tamil Nadu and Karnataka

23. Mention the name of the only state of the Indian federation having its own constitution.

Answer: Jammu and Kashmir

24. Centre can declare President Rule is a state under Article

(a) 352 (b) 360 (c) 356 (d) 365

Answer: (c) 356

25. Education is included in the

(a) Concurrent list (b) State list (c) Central list (d) Central list (e) None of above

Answer: (a) Concurrent list

(d) Multiple Choice:

1. “The Indian federation is a Union because it is indestructible.”-Who said this?

(a) J. L. Nehru (b) Sarder Patel (c) B. R. Ambedkar (d) Rajendra Prasad

Answer: (c) B. R. Ambedkar

2. “India is more unitary than federal.”-Who made this remark?

(a) Rajendra Prasad (b) J. L. Nehru (c) K. M. Munshi (d) B. C. Roy

Answer: (c) K. M. Munshi

3. “To my mind our Constitution is not a federal one.”-Who made this remark?

(a) K.M. Munshi (b) H. V. Pataskar (c)J. L. Nehru (d) K. T. Shah

Answer: (b) H. V. Pataskar

4. Which one of the following is an unfederal feature of the Indian Constitution?

(a) Written Constitution (b) Supremacy of Judiciary (c) Single Citizenship (d) Distribution of Powers

Answer: (c) Single Citizenship

5. Which Article has distributed legislative powers?

(a)245 (b)246 (c) 247 (d) 248

Answer: (b)246

6. Executive power of a state shall be exercised in compliance with central laws under Article

(a) 254 (b) 256 (c)258 (d) 260

Answer: (b) 256

7. “India has both federal and unfederal characteristics.”-Who said this?

(a) D.D. Bose (b) B. R. Ambedkar (c) K. M. Munshi (d) K. T. Shah

Answer: (a) D.D. Bose

8. The expression ‘Union of States’ has been borrowed from the

(a) Indian Independence Act, 1947 (b) Govt. of India Act, 1935 (c) British North America Act, 1867 (d) American Constitution

Answer: (c) British North America Act, 1867

9. “Indian has a federal structure with a strong bias towards the centre.”-Who said this?

(a) K. M. Munshi (b) Supreme Court of India (c) Gajendra Gadkar (d) K. C. Wheare

Answer: (b) Supreme Court of India

10. “(Federation) is more a ‘functional’ than an ‘institutional’ concept?”-Who made this remark?

(a) K.C. Wheare (b) I. Jennings (c) Livingstone (d) K. M. Munshi

Answer: (c) Livingstone

11. “(Indian) Constitution is federal in form with a unitary bias.”-Who made this comment?

(a) Durga Das Bose (b) B. R. Ambedkar (c) D. N. Benerjee (d) K. M. Munshi

Answer: (c) D. N. Benerjee

12. “India is not a federation, but a Union.”-Who said this?

(a) B. R. Ambedkar (b) J. L. Nehru (c) Durga Das Bose (d) R. Prassad

Answer: (b) J. L. Nehru

13. Which Schedule contains the lists of subjects?

(a) IV (b)VI (c) VII (d) IX

Answer: (c) VII

14. How many list of subjects are there in the Indian Constitution?

(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 7

Answer: (b) 3

15. Residuary Powers under the Indian Constitution belong to the

(a) Central Government (b) State Government (c) Central and State Governments (d) None of these

Answer: (a) Central Government

16. Which one of the following is a concurrent subject?

(a) Public Health (b) Price Control (c) Revenue (d) Law of Order

Answer: (b) Price Control

17. Under which Article of the Indian Constitution the executive power of the States shall extend to the matters included in the State list?

(a) 62 (b) 162 (c)262 (d)362

Answer: (b) 162

18. Which part of the Constitution of India deals with Union State relations in legislative matters?

(a)X (b)XI (c) XII (d)XIII

Answer: (b)XI

19. Financial relationship between the Union and the States is incorporated in part

(a)XII (b) XIII (c)XIV (d)XV

Answer: (a) XII

20. “No substantive change in the Constitution is needed in the matter of Centre-State relations.”-Who said this?

(a) K.V. Rao (b) M.C. Setalvad (c) Rajamannar (d) Pataskar

Answer: (b) M.C. Setalvad

21. How many Zones are there in India?

(a)2 (b)4 (c) 5 (d) 7

Answer: (d) 7

22. Which Article of the Indian Constitution provides for the establishment of the Finance Commission?

(a)275 (b)280 (c) 282 (d)285

Answer: (b)280

23. Who is the Chairman of the National Development Council?

(a) President (b) Prime Minister (c) Vice-President (d) Chief Justice of India

Answer: (b) Prime Minister

24. The Election Commission of India is headed by the

(a) President (b) Prime Minister (c) Chief Election Commissioner (d) Home Minister

Answer: (c) Chief Election Commissioner

25. Who is the Chairman of the Planning Commission of India?

(a) Prime Minister (b) Finance Minister (c) President (d) Vice-President

Answer: (a) Prime Minister

26. Which Article of the Constitution provides for the establishment of the Commission for Backward Classes?

(a) 40 (b) 140 (c) 240 (d) 340

Answer: (d) 340

27. The Parliament may establish Contingency Fund under Article

(a)266 (b)267 (c) 268 (d)269

Answer: (b)267

Textual Questions

1. From the list of following events which ones would you identify with the functioning of federalism? Why?

Answer:

• The Centre on Tuesday announced Sixth Schedule status to GNLF-led Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council, which would ensure greater autonomy to the governing body in the Hill district of West Bengal. A tripartite Memorandum of Settlement was signed in New Delhi between the Centre, West Bengal government and the Subhas Ghising-led Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) after two days of hectic deliberations. This event identifies with the functioning of federalism because it involves the granting of greater autonomy to a regional governing body, reflecting the federal principle of sharing power between central and regional governments.
• Government for action plan for rain-hit States: Centre has asked the rain-ravaged States to submit detailed plans for reconstruction to enable it to respond to their demands for extra relief expeditiously. This event identifies with the functioning of federalism as it shows the cooperation between the central and state governments in addressing state-specific issues, demonstrating the interdependence and collaborative nature of federalism.
• CU Status for Manipur University: Rajya Sabha on Wednesday passed a Bill to convert the Manipur University into a Central University with the Human Resource Development Minister promising such institutions in the North-Eastern States of Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Sikkim as well. This event reflects federalism because it involves the central government’s role in higher education and the establishment of central universities in states, indicating the central authority’s involvement in state affairs for national development.
• Funds released: The Centre has released Rs. 553 lakh to Arunachal Pradesh under its rural water supply scheme. The first instalment was of Rs. 466.81 lakh. This event is related to federalism as it shows the central government providing financial assistance to state governments, highlighting the financial relationship and resource distribution between the central and state governments.

2. Think which of the following statements would be correct. State why.

Answer:

• Federalism enhances the possibility of people from different regions to interact without the fear of one’s culture being imposed upon them by others. This statement is correct because federalism allows for the coexistence of diverse cultures within a nation, promoting mutual respect and interaction without cultural dominance.
• A federal system will ensure that the powers of those at the centre will remain limited. This statement is correct because a key feature of federalism is the division of powers between the central and regional governments, ensuring that central authority is balanced and not absolute.

3. Based on the first few articles of Belgian Constitution given below-explain how federalism is visualized in that country. Try and write a similar Article for the Constitution of India.

Answer: A similar article for the Constitution of India could be:

Title I: On Federal India, its components and its territory.
Article 1: India is a Federal State made up of states and union territories.
Article 2: India is made up of linguistic states and cultural regions.
Article 3: India is made up of states and union territories with their own governments and administrative divisions.
Article 4: India has multiple linguistic and cultural regions with their own unique identities. Each state or union territory is part of the Indian Union with its own administrative structure.
Article 5: The states and union territories are further divided into districts and municipalities for local governance and administration.

4. Imagine that you were to rewrite the provisions regarding federalism. Write an essay of not more than 300 words making your suggestions about: a. division of powers among the Centre and the States, b. distribution of financial resources, c. methods of resolving inter-State disputes and, d. appointment of Governors

Answer: Reimagining Indian Federalism

In a revised federal structure, the division of powers should be more balanced, with a greater emphasis on the autonomy of states. The Union List should be restricted to matters of national importance, such as defense, foreign affairs, and currency. The State List should encompass a wider range of subjects, including education, health, and agriculture. The Concurrent List should be reviewed to ensure that it does not unduly encroach upon the powers of the states.

The distribution of financial resources should be more equitable, with a larger share of central taxes being allocated to the states. A formula based on population, area, and development needs should be adopted to ensure that all states receive adequate funding. The states should also be given greater control over their own resources, such as mineral wealth and forest resources.

Inter-State disputes should be resolved through a more robust and impartial mechanism. An independent Inter-State Council with a strong mandate to adjudicate disputes should be established. The Council should be empowered to make binding decisions on matters such as water sharing, boundary disputes, and inter-state trade.

The appointment of Governors should be made more transparent and accountable. The process should be based on merit and experience, with the consultation of the state government. The Governor should be a neutral figure who acts as a facilitator between the state and the Centre, rather than as a representative of the central government.

5. Which of the following should be the basis for formation of a State? Why? a. Common Language b. Common economic interests c. Common religion d. Administrative convenience

Answer: A common language should be the basis for the formation of a state. A common language facilitates communication, cultural exchange, and social cohesion. It also helps to promote a sense of shared identity and belonging among the people of a state.

6. Majority of people from the States of north India -Rajasthan,-Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh. Bihar speak Hindi. If all these States are combined to form one State, would it be in tune with the idea of federalism? Give arguments.

Answer: Combining all these states into one state would not be in tune with the idea of federalism. Federalism is based on the principle of decentralization of power and the recognition of regional diversity. Combining these states would create a massive state with a large population and diverse cultural and economic interests. This would make it difficult to effectively govern the state and could lead to the marginalization of certain regions and communities.

7. List four features of the Indian Constitution that give greater power to the Central governmentthan the State government.

Answer: Four features of the Indian Constitution that give greater power to the Central government than the State government are:

• The Union Parliament has the power to make laws on any matter not enumerated in the Concurrent List or State List.
• The Union Parliament can make laws on state subjects during a national emergency.
• The Union Parliament can make laws on state subjects if two or more states request it.
• The Union Parliament can make laws on state subjects to implement international treaties or agreements.

8. Why are many States unhappy about the role ofthe Governor?

Answer: Many states are unhappy about the role of the Governor because they perceive him as a representative of the central government rather than a neutral figure. The Governor’s power to reserve bills passed by the state legislature for the President’s assent and his power to dismiss the state government on the advice of the central government are seen as undermining the autonomy of the states.

9. President’s rule can be imposed in a State if the government is not being run according to the provisions of the Constitution. State whether any of the following conditions are a fit case for imposition of President’s rule in the State. Give reasons.

• two members ofthe State Legislative Assembly belonging to the main opposition party have been killed by criminals and the opposition is demanding dismissal ofthe State government.
• Kidnapping ofyoung children for ransom is on rise. The numberof crimes against women are increasing.
• No political party has secured majority in the recent elections of the State Legislative Assembly. It is feared that some MLAs from the other parties may be lured to support a political party in return for money.
• Different political parties are ruling in the State and at the Centre and they are bitter opponents of each other.
• More than 2000 people have been killed in the communal riots.
• In the water dispute between the two States, one State government refused to follow the decision ofthe Supreme Court.

Answer: The following conditions are fit cases for the imposition of President’s rule in a state:

• More than 2000 people have been killed in the communal riots. This condition indicates a breakdown of law and order in the state, which is a serious threat to the security and well-being of the people.
• In the water dispute between the two States, one State government refused to follow the decision ofthe Supreme Court. This condition indicates a defiance of the rule of law and the authority of the Supreme Court, which is essential for the smooth functioning of the federal system.

The other conditions are not fit cases for the imposition of President’s rule. The killing of two MLAs, the rise in kidnapping and crimes against women, and the lack of a majority in the state assembly are serious issues, but they do not necessarily indicate a breakdown of constitutional machinery. The fact that different political parties are ruling in the state and at the centre does not justify the imposition of President’s rule.

10. What are the demands raised by States in their quest for greater autonomy?

Answer: States in their quest for greater autonomy demand a more equitable distribution of powers, financial resources, and control over their own affairs. They seek a greater say in matters that directly affect their people, such as education, health, and agriculture. They also demand a more robust mechanism for resolving inter-state disputes and a more neutral role for the Governor.

11. Should some States be governed by special provisions? Does this create resentment among other States? Does this help in forging greater unity among the regions ofthe country?

Answer: Special provisions for certain states can be justified in cases where there are unique historical, cultural, or geographical circumstances that require special consideration. However, such provisions should be carefully crafted to ensure that they do not create resentment among other states. They should also be reviewed periodically to ensure that they are still necessary and that they do not undermine the principles of equality and unity.

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