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Summary
The chapter, “Some Aspects of French Revolution,” explores the conditions leading to and shaping the French Revolution. Before the revolution, France was described as both a “political prison” and a “museum of economic errors.” The monarchy wielded unchecked power, often imprisoning critics without trial. Economically, the system was deeply flawed, with peasants bearing heavy taxes while the clergy and nobility were exempt. Corruption further deepened the financial crisis, as much of the revenue was lost to dishonest officials.
French society was divided into three estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate). The Third Estate included merchants, peasants, and urban workers, who carried the burden of taxes and often faced poverty. Kings like Louis XVI ruled by divine right, believing they were answerable only to God. However, the inefficiency and weakness of the monarchy increased dissatisfaction. Philosophers like Rousseau and Montesquieu criticized absolutism and argued for liberty, equality, and governance based on the consent of the people. Economic hardship, political corruption, and growing awareness of inequality drove widespread discontent.
The Estates-General, convened in 1789, signaled the start of revolutionary changes. Frustrated with their limited role, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and took the Tennis Court Oath, vowing to draft a new constitution. The storming of the Bastille soon followed, symbolizing the collapse of royal authority and sparking peasant uprisings across the countryside. Events like the women’s march to Versailles over bread shortages highlighted the severity of public unrest.
The National Assembly abolished feudal privileges, declared individual rights, and introduced the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. This document proclaimed liberty, equality, and fraternity, though it restricted voting rights to property-owning men. The monarchy was dismantled, and King Louis XVI was executed in 1793. Political struggles between the Jacobins and Girondins intensified, with the Jacobins taking control and instituting the Reign of Terror. This period of harsh measures aimed to stabilize the revolution amidst threats of foreign invasion and internal rebellion.
The chapter also notes the contributions of various groups. Peasants, urban workers, and women played significant roles in the revolution, expressing their grievances through protests and uprisings. Although the revolution dismantled feudal structures and promoted the ideals of equality, it shifted power to the middle class, leaving many issues unresolved. However, the chapter highlights how the revolution’s principles inspired democratic movements beyond France, leaving a lasting impact on the world.
Textual Questions, Answers (Oriental)
Multiple Choice Questions
1. To whom of the following went the benefit of the increase in tax rate prior to 1789?
A. The French government
B. The aristocrats
C. The farmers-general
D. The Church
Answer: C. The farmers-general
2. Corvée was a tax levied and collected as:
A. Income tax
B. Property tax
C. Labour service
D. Estate duty
Answer: C. Labour service
3. Which of the following was a direct tax collected by the French government?
A. Taille
B. Aides
C. Gabelle
D. None of these
Answer: A. Taille
4. Of the following, who were not included in the Third Estate?
A. Peasantry
B. Workers
C. Labourers
D. Clergymen
Answer: D. Clergymen
Very-short Answer Type Questions
1. Who brought the ideas released by the contemporary thinkers down to the common people?
Answer: Pamphleteers of the Third Estate
2. Who prepared the plan for financial reforms for approval to the Council of Notables?
Answer: Calonne
3. The threat of what brought about the fall of the monarchy in France?
Answer: Foreign invasion
4. Which document condemned the ancient regime?
Answer: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
5. Who became the active propagandists of the revolutionary ideas?
Answer: Writers and teachers of Germany
Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is meant by ‘feudalism’?
Answer: Feudalism was the system in which the nobility had extensive privileges, such as exemption from taxation, while the peasantry bore heavy burdens, including taxes and corvee (forced labor). It was marked by a hierarchy where landowners had control over peasants, who provided services and dues in exchange for protection and access to land.
2. What is indirect tax?
Answer: Indirect tax refers to taxes that were imposed on goods and services, not directly on income or property. Examples include the salt tax (gabelle), internal custom duties (traites), and miscellaneous excise duties (aides).
3. How did the French kings consider themselves?
Answer: The French kings considered themselves to be representatives of God on Earth. They believed in the ‘Divine Right of Kingship,’ which meant they were answerable only to God and not to the people for their actions.
4. Who was Louis XVI?
Answer: Louis XVI was the King of France during the time of the French Revolution. He was a weak and inefficient ruler whose reign saw the outbreak of the Revolution, and he was ultimately overthrown and executed.
5. What was the position of the middle class in pre-revolutionary France?
Answer: The middle class, or bourgeoisie, was part of the Third Estate. Despite being wealthy and superior to the aristocracy in several respects, they were denied privileges and were subject to taxation, which wounded their sentiments and fueled their resentment.
6. Who said, the king was the creation of the society?
Answer: Jean Jacques Rousseau said that the king was the creation of the society and that he was to rule with the consent of the people.
7. When was King Louis XVI executed?
Answer: King Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793.
8. Who was Robespierre?
Answer: Robespierre was one of the key leaders of the Jacobin Club during the French Revolution. He played a central role in the Reign of Terror and was a member of the Committee of Public Safety.
Long Answer Type Questions-I
1. Discuss the structure of pre-revolutionary society.
Answer: Pre-revolutionary French society, besides the King, constituted of three orders or estates. The orders originated in the medieval times. At that time distinction had been made between those who prayed, those who fought in battle, and those who worked to provide a living for the others. This is very much akin to the occupational class division in the ancient Vedic society of India. The Brahmanas were the people who were priests and engaged in education; the Kshatriyas were the martial class and the Vaishyas were the people who worked for the people. However, there was much difference between the French society of the 17th-18th centuries and that of the Vedic period of India.
- The King: From the 16th century France, like many other European countries, had a despotic government. In such a system there was no room for people’s participation in the governance of the country. The kings of France were believers in the ‘Divine Right of Kingship’. The French kings considered themselves to be the representative of God on the earth. To disobey a mere political ruler was one thing, but to disobey God’s representative was something entirely different. Thus the kings did not feel that they were answerable to the people for their deeds or misdeeds. Rather they were answerable only to God whom they represented.
- The First Estate: In the French society, the clergy (priests and the Church officials) occupied a position next to that of the King. Prior to the revolution, the clergy became very corrupt. They were used to luxurious life. The wealth of the Church came from the land it owned and from the tithes that was a tax on religion. The tax was supposed to provide for the local priest, poor relief, and upkeep of the church buildings. But most of it went to the higher clergy (higher officials of the Church).
- The Second Estate: The aristocracy occupied the second position in the social scale and thus called the ‘Second Estate’. They performed no duty towards the state. As they belonged to the ‘privileged class,’ the aristocracy was immune from paying tax. There were two divisions in the Second Estate, namely, Noble of the Sword and Noble of the Robe.
- The Third Estate: All except the privileged First and Second Estates belonged to the Third Estate. This class consisted of the middle class, workers, peasants, sans-culottes (urban workers, wage earners, and others), etc. The middle class was a much superior lot compared to aristocracy (Second Estate) in all respects. Yet in the existing social set-up, their position was in the third. This wounded the sentiment of the middle-class people. The middle class was by far the wealthiest part of the Third Estate, and peasantry was by far the most numerous. About a quarter of the peasants were landless labourers who owned nothing but their house and garden. They lived in a chronic state of uncertainty. The urban workers made up another part of the Third Estate. Most of them lived in unhealthy conditions in crowded towns. They were unskilled and poor.
2. Analyse the taxation system of the pre-revolutionary France.
Answer: The chief weakness of the government of pre-revolutionary France was the faulty finance. Throughout the 17th-18th centuries, the French government had been under serious annual deficit. Owing to the faulty system of collection of revenue as also the tax-immunities enjoyed by the privileged classes, it was unable to meet the deficit. Nor was it possible to increase the already high tax burden.
- Indirect Taxes: The infamous and inequitable salt tax (gabelle) and internal custom duties (traites) were collected on consumer goods. Besides, miscellaneous excise duty (aides) yielded increased revenue due to hikes in prices as also rise in the urban population. But owing to the faulty collection system, the increased amount went to the pockets of the dishonest revenue-collectors.
- Direct Taxes: In the imposition of direct tax, there were inequalities from region to region. In northern France, taille was a tax levied on total income. But in the southern region, it was charged on income from landed property. Capitation (poll-tax) was another direct tax which originally was levied on all Frenchmen. But later on, it was collected only from the commoners. Vingtieme was levied on income from real estate. The aristocracy or nobles were exempt from paying the tax.
3. Discuss in brief about three Estates in France.
Answer: Pre-revolutionary French society was divided into three classes or Estates:
- The First Estate: The clergy belonged to the First Estate. In the French society, the clergy (priests and the Church officials) occupied a position next to that of the King. They enjoyed enormous privileges and wealth.
- The Second Estate: The nobility constituted the Second Estate. They performed no duty towards the state. They were immune from paying taxes and held privileges over lands and services.
- The Third Estate: The Third Estate included almost every class of people, starting from the professional people like teachers and doctors at the top level to the vagabonds of rural and urban France. They were burdened with taxes and other social inequalities.
4. Why were the philosophers against French absolutism and fiscal policies?
Answer: Certain self-confidence and mental preparation are needed for a revolution. The writers who appeared in France during the late eighteenth century prepared the ground by preparing the French people mentally to receive the shock of the revolution.
- Montesquieu: He pointed out that the rule of one individual person not restrained by law was arbitrary. Under such a rule, no one could feel secure.
- Jean Jacques Rousseau: He said that the king was the creation of the society and that he was to rule with the consent of the people. He also stated that the people have the right to dethrone a king.
- Vauban: He hoped for a just system of taxation. He criticized the immunities of the clergy and aristocracy.
- Physiocrats: These economists directed their blows against every form of governmental regulation in respect of the economy. They supported the idea of laissez-faire (free-trade).
5. Discuss the aristocratic revolt in the pre-revolutionary France.
Answer: Faced with economic bankruptcy, Calonne, the Finance Minister of Louis XVI, drew up a comprehensive plan of financial reform. The proposed reform measures were to be placed before the Parlement of Paris for approval.
- Apprehending that the Parlement would oppose the proposed fiscal measures, the same was placed before the Council of Notables.
- The Notables expressed their inability to approve the proposed plan of reforms.
- Brienne, the new Finance Minister, preferred to place the reform measures to the Parlement of Paris for approval.
- The Parlement of Paris refused to approve the plan of reforms and pressed for the summoning of the State-General.
Refusal to approve the proposed fiscal programme of reforms by the Parlement of Paris constituted the Aristocratic Revolt (1788).
23. Discuss the background of the fall of Bastille.
Answer: The summoning of the States-General by Louis XVI marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Immediately after the opening of the States-General on 5 May 1789, trouble started over the procedure of voting. The elected members of the Third Estate demanded ‘vote per capita’ (one man one vote) instead of vote per order. The King refused to concede to the demand. On 20 June 1789, the members of the Third Estate went to the Assembly hall but found its entrance closed. They assembled in the adjacent tennis court to take the ‘Tennis Court Oath,’ vowing never to separate until the constitution of the kingdom was established.
The King remained adamant and commanded the three Estates to sit separately and vote per order. However, the defiant attitude of the members of the Third Estate compelled the King to reverse his earlier decision and agree to a National Constituent Assembly. As the Assembly began its work, violence erupted.
The Fall of Bastille: On 14 July 1789, a violent mob attacked the Bastille, an old fortress used as a prison, and razed it to the ground. The crowd, fearful of a government counter-attack, searched for arms and ammunition stored in the fortress. The release of prisoners was a secondary issue. The Bastille symbolized royal despotism, and its fall marked the end of royal absolutism in France. It encouraged peasants to revolt and paved the way for the end of feudalism.
24. Write in brief about the National Constituent Assembly.
Answer: The National Constituent Assembly emerged after the summoning of the States-General and the subsequent events, including the Tennis Court Oath. Its work was disrupted by the Fall of the Bastille but resumed shortly thereafter. The Assembly labored for two years (1789–1791) and completed its work in 1791.
Achievements:
- Abolished feudalism and serfdom.
- Proclaimed individual rights and liberties in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
- Established separation of power with legislative authority vested in the Legislative Assembly.
- Incorporated ideas of philosophers like Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire as the law of the land.
- Proclaimed religious toleration and confiscated Church property.
The new Constitution provided the framework for a constitutional monarchy, though it was short-lived.
25. Write a note about the abolition of feudalism.
Answer: The abolition of feudalism was one of the significant achievements of the French Revolution, brought about by the National Constituent Assembly.
- The nobility lost all their privileges, including the rights of private justice and feudal dues.
- Their titles were abolished, reducing the former privileged nobility to the status of simple citizens.
- The corvée, a kind of forced labor, was abolished.
- Exclusive rights such as keeping pigeons or hunting were taken away.
This marked the end of feudalism and ensured social equality. However, the abolition of feudalism primarily benefited the middle class and marked the centralization of power in their hands.
26. What were the democratic rights of citizens?
Answer: Democracy is a system of government where sovereignty is vested in the people. The French Revolution provided the framework for democratic rights through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and the new Constitution.
- All citizens were declared to have the right to participate in the making of the law.
- The Declaration proclaimed liberty, equality, property rights, and security as inviolable.
- However, voting rights were restricted to ‘Active Citizens’ who were property holders, dividing citizens into ‘Active’ and ‘Passive’ categories.
Despite its progressive ideals, the Constitution’s property-based voting rights deprived a large section of the population of democratic participation.
27. Write a note about the Sans Culottes.
Answer: Sans Culottes were a combination of social forces that emerged in Paris during the course of the French Revolution.
- The term sans culottes means ‘without breeches,’ as they refused to wear the breeches associated with aristocrats and instead wore trousers.
- They constituted the bulk of Paris’s population and included tradesmen, shopkeepers, craftsmen, wage-earners, clerks, and professional soldiers.
- Though their economic and social status varied, they shared a common hatred for the aristocracy.
- The sans culottes played a crucial role during the critical years of the Revolution, particularly after the fall of the monarchy.
Their influence was significant in shaping the radical phase of the Revolution, including their support for the Jacobins.
Long Answer Type Questions-II
1. What was the main conflict of the Royalty with the third estate in France? Discuss about the effect of the conflict.
Answer: The main conflict between the Royalty and the Third Estate in France was over the voting system in the Estates-General. According to the prevalent practice, each Estate had one vote, which meant that the First and Second Estates (the clergy and the nobility) could easily outvote the Third Estate, despite the latter representing the vast majority of the population. The Third Estate demanded ‘vote per capita’ (one man, one vote) instead of ‘vote per order’ to ensure that their larger numbers would have a fair representation.
The King, supported by the First and Second Estates, refused to concede to this demand. This refusal led to the members of the Third Estate taking the famous Tennis Court Oath on June 20, 1789, where they vowed “never to separate until the constitution of the kingdom shall be established.” This marked the beginning of the end of absolute monarchy in France and the establishment of people’s sovereignty.
Effect of the conflict:
- The conflict and the Tennis Court Oath led to the formation of the National Constituent Assembly, signaling a radical shift in political and social structures.
- The Third Estate, representing commoners, showed their determination to become lawgivers of the nation, effectively challenging the ancient regime.
- The King eventually reversed his decision and allowed the three Estates to sit together and vote individually.
- The events escalated to the storming of the Bastille, symbolizing the downfall of royal absolutism and paving the way for the French Revolution.
29. Write briefly about the Jacobins and the Girondists.
Answer: Jacobins: The Jacobins were a political club formed during the French Revolution, representing radical and revolutionary ideals. They were supported by the Parisian mob, including the sans-culottes, and advocated for the complete abolition of monarchy, establishment of a republic, and the implementation of social and economic reforms. Their leaders included Robespierre, Danton, and Marat. The Jacobins played a significant role in the Reign of Terror, using force and terror to preserve the Revolution and combat counter-revolutionaries.
Girondists: The Girondists were a political group during the Revolution, representing moderate and federalist views. They primarily had support in the provinces and were composed of high-born individuals. While they believed in the abolition of the monarchy, they were less extreme compared to the Jacobins and sought to protect property and maintain law and order. The Girondists favored liberal economic policies and were wary of mob rule.
Conflict between the two: The Jacobins and Girondists differed in their sources of support and revolutionary methods. The Jacobins, with the backing of the Parisian mob, expelled the Girondists from the National Convention in June 1793, marking the start of the Reign of Terror.
3. What was the role of women in the French Revolution?
Answer: Women played a crucial but often overlooked role in the French Revolution. Their most significant contribution came during the march to Versailles in October 1789. The shortage of bread and rising prices led to widespread hunger, compelling thousands of women to take action. On October 5, 1789, a large crowd of women marched to the Town Hall in Paris and later proceeded to Versailles. They demanded bread and held the King accountable for the crisis.
The women marchers, joined by some men and followed by the National Guard, forced King Louis XVI and his family to accompany them back to Paris. Along the route, the mob shouted slogans such as “We have the baker (King), the baker’s wife (Queen), and the little cook-boy (Prince) – now we shall have bread.” This event symbolized the growing power of the populace in the Revolution and established a direct link between women and revolutionary action.
Extras
Additional MCQs
1. What period is referred to as the “Ancient Regime” in France?
A. Pre-revolutionary France
B. Post-revolutionary France
C. Industrial Revolution
D. Medieval France
Answer: A. Pre-revolutionary France
100. Who famously declared, “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”?
A. King Louis XVI
B. Napoleon Bonaparte
C. The French Revolutionaries
D. The Paris Commune
Answer: C. The French Revolutionaries
Additional Questions, Answers
1. What was the Ancien Régime?
Answer: The Ancien Régime, or Ancient Regime, refers to the socio-political and economic structure in France prior to the French Revolution of 1789. It was characterized by monarchical absolutism, feudal privileges for the clergy and nobility, and a taxation system that burdened the Third Estate.
74. Explain the events leading to the Thermidorian Reaction.
Answer: The Thermidorian Reaction, which led to the fall of Robespierre, was preceded by the following events:
- The Reign of Terror: During 1793-1794, the Committee of Public Safety, dominated by Robespierre, unleashed the Reign of Terror. Laws like the Law of Suspects enabled the execution of over 20,000 people, targeting counter-revolutionaries and even former revolutionaries like Danton.
- Growing Discontent:
- The use of arbitrary terror created widespread fear and alienated supporters. Economic problems, including food shortages, further fueled dissatisfaction.
- Robespierre’s attacks on both moderates and radicals within the Convention left him isolated.
- Robespierre’s Overreach: On July 26, 1794, Robespierre made a speech hinting at further purges but refused to name specific targets. This incited fear among Convention members that they were next.
- Arrest and Execution: On July 27, 1794 (9th Thermidor), Robespierre and his allies were arrested and executed the following day.
The Thermidorian Reaction ended the Reign of Terror, dismantled Jacobin dominance, and led to the establishment of a more moderate phase in the Revolution.
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
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