Revolutionary Ideals: WBBSE Class 9 History (English Medium) solutions

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Summary

Napoleon Bonaparte began his life on the island of Corsica in 1769, where he was born into a family that had recently become French subjects. Though Corsica’s dependence on France initially troubled him, Napoleon embraced French ideals after Corsica gained equal standing within France during the Revolution. His military career took off during the turbulent years of the French Revolution, showcasing his leadership by defending the National Convention from uprisings and achieving victories against European powers.

After defeating anti-French forces in Italy, his fame grew despite setbacks like the loss to Admiral Nelson in Egypt. Dissatisfaction with the Directory’s rule in France created an opportunity for Napoleon to seize power in 1799 through a military coup, marking the start of his reign as First Consul. During this period, Napoleon introduced reforms focused on strengthening central authority and stabilizing France. He oversaw the creation of the Napoleonic Code, which simplified laws and upheld some revolutionary ideals like equality before the law while limiting freedoms, especially for women and political dissenters.

In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France, blending revolutionary reforms with authoritarian practices. His ambitions extended beyond France, as he sought to expand his empire across Europe. While initially seen as a liberator by some, Napoleon’s rule often resembled domination. Heavy taxes, conscription, and restrictions on liberties in conquered territories turned initial support into resistance. Nationalist movements emerged in Spain, Germany, and Austria, driven by resentment toward French control. Spain’s guerrilla warfare and the coordinated resistance in Germany weakened Napoleon’s grip on Europe.

Napoleon’s campaign in Russia in 1812 marked the beginning of his downfall. The harsh winter and logistical failures decimated his forces. A coalition of European powers united against him, culminating in his defeat at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. Forced to abdicate, he was exiled to Elba but returned briefly in 1815, ruling for a period known as the Hundred Days. His final defeat at Waterloo led to his exile on St. Helena, where he died in 1821.

Though Napoleon preserved some revolutionary principles like meritocracy and legal equality, his authoritarian methods and imperial ambitions often contradicted the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. His legacy is a mixture of reform and conquest, both celebrated and contested.

Textual Questions, Answers (Oriental)

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following administrative system was introduced by Napoleon?

A. National Convention
B. Directory
C. Consulate
D. None of the above

Answer: C. Consulate

2. Which of the following country was forced by Napoleon to sign peace treaty and give up its lands to France?

A. Russia
B. Austria
C. England
D. Spain

Answer: B. Austria

3. When did Napoleon grab the political power of France?

A. 1789
B. 1792
C. 1799
D. 1900

Answer: C. 1799

4. Which of the following two countries did constitute the Iberian peninsula?

A. France and Belgium
B. England and Scotland
C. Spain and Portugal
D. Austria and Prussia

Answer: C. Spain and Portugal

Very-short Answer Type Questions

5. Which government of France appointed Napoleon as the French commander?

Answer: The Directory government of France.

6. Mention the most important reforms introduced by Napoleon.

Answer:

• Introduction of the Napoleonic Code.
• Centralization of administration.
• Strengthening of the central government.

7. Who said: ‘I am the Revolution’?

Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte.

8. What were the two minimum demands of the French Revolution?

Answer: Liberty and Equality.

Short Answer Type Questions

9. What was the incident known as the ’18th Vendemiaire’?

Answer: The ’18th Vendemiaire’ refers to an uprising of the Parisian mob that threatened the National Convention on 5 October 1795. Napoleon repulsed the mob, saving the National Convention, earning a reputation as a protector of law and order.

10. How did Napoleon become the Emperor of the French?

Answer: On 2 December 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. A plebiscite supported his assumption of hereditary office, following his earlier appointment as Consul for life in 1802.

11. Whom did Napoleon install on the Spanish throne?

Answer: Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne after persuading King Ferdinand of Spain to resign his claims.

12. Who was the first martyr in the movement against Napoleon in Germany?

Answer: The first martyr in the movement against Napoleon in Germany was Johann Philippe Palm, a bookseller shot in 1806 for his pamphlet, “Germany in Her Deep Humiliation,” critical of French domination.

Long Answer Type Questions-I

13. Write in short how did Napoleon come to power in France.

Answer: At the end of the Reign of Terror, the National Convention drew up a new republican Constitution for France, known as the Directory. France was under the Directory between 1795 and 1799. The foreign policy of France under the Directory was directed against European powers like Britain, Austria, Sardinia, etc. The Directory appointed Napoleon Bonaparte as the commander of the army in the Italian campaign in 1796 due to his previous success in expelling the British army from Toulon (1793). Napoleon saved the National Convention during the uprising of the Parisian mob on 5 October 1795, earning him a reputation as a protector of law and order.

He displayed skill in moving troops rapidly against the Austrians and achieved victories over European powers. Although his Egyptian expedition (1798) was unsuccessful, his military exploits made him popular with the French people. Meanwhile, the Directory administration became unpopular due to its inability to meet the people’s aspirations. Napoleon, after assessing the situation, joined hands with a section of the Directors to overthrow the administration. On 9 November 1799, through a military coup known as the 18th Brumaire, Napoleon seized the administration of France.

14. Would you say that Napoleon rejected liberalism in his Code?

Answer: The Code Napoleon ensured equality of all in the eye of law and incorporated revolutionary principles such as absolute equality of persons, civil marriage, divorce, and equal division of property among heirs. However, it rejected many liberal ideas of the French Revolution. For instance:

• It restored the despotic authority of the father over his wife and children, allowing a father to imprison a rebellious child.
• The status of women was lowered. Husbands could divorce wives on grounds of adultery, but wives could only do so under strict limitations.
• Trial by jury was much restricted, and the arbitrary imprisonment practices of pre-Revolutionary days were revived. Special prisons for political offenders were also established.
• The Code maintained the concept of equal division of estates among sons, which was a departure from feudal practices but emphasized property rights aligned with the ancient regime.

Thus, while the Code preserved certain revolutionary ideals, it rejected several liberal principles, reflecting Napoleon’s opposition to liberty and democratic ideals.

15. How did Napoleon become the Emperor of the French?

Answer: The inordinate ambition of Napoleon did not come to an end with the attainment of the post of First Consul. The French people heaved a sigh of relief when a disciplined soldier like Napoleon was entrusted with the administration of France. In 1802 a popular plebiscite had made him the Consul for life. Two years later another plebiscite made his office hereditary. On 2 December 1804 amid imposing ceremonies at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, Napoleon placed a crown upon his own head and assumed the title of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French. The event was graced by the presence of Pope Pius VII who had come from Rome. Napoleon once said, ‘I am the Revolution.’ Some other time he ambiguously said: ‘The Revolution is terminated.’ Despite ambiguity in the saying of Napoleon, there is no denying the fact that he in some ways was the heir of the French Revolution. But at the same time, in other respects, his actions and moves were more reminiscent of the ancient regime. These may be illustrated by some examples.

• The creation of the Empire did not temper in any way the idea of equality. The revolutionary principle of ‘career open to talents’ was firmly preserved.
• The fundamental changes brought about in the Revolutionary era, like the destruction of feudalism, were not interfered with. But at the same time, Napoleon was unwilling to permit the exercise of political rights. Napoleon argued that the political crises after 1789 were the result of serious political disagreements. Thus he preferred authoritarian rule even if this meant the revival of the features of the ancient regime. Herein lays the conflict between the Napoleonic Empire and the ideals of the French Revolution. Some of the measures Napoleon had taken as the Emperor clearly violated the ideals of the French Revolution.
• For instance, he severely restricted the scope of the representative institutions.
• Individual liberties were crushed by restrictions imposed on the freedom of expression.
• Restrictions were imposed on the press. Publication of articles on controversial subjects was prohibited. Severe controls were placed on printing and publishing. All books had to be submitted to the government for scrutiny before publication. In the Empire, Napoleon established a new kind of personal rule breaking with the ideals of the Revolution. It has been pointed out by D. G. Wright that even Robespierre never possessed such a degree of personal authority as enjoyed by Napoleon as the Emperor of the French.

16. Write in short about the nationalist reaction in Spain against Napoleon.

Answer: Napoleon persuaded the ruling King Ferdinand to resign all his claims on the Spanish throne. Immediately after his resignation, Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne. Interference of a foreigner like Napoleon in the internal affairs of Spain and imposition of a new King who was a foreigner cast a blow to the patriotic and nationalist spirit of the Spaniards. The priests, nobles, common people, and peasants together made a common cause and agreed to liberate the country by uprooting the Napoleonic rule. The Spanish people organized revolutionary committees which looked after local resistance. Even they recruited troops from amongst themselves. In 1808 the Spaniards forced Joseph Bonaparte to flee from Madrid (capital of Spain). Shortly after, a war broke out with Portuguese and Spaniards, in cooperation with Britain, against the French. It was the beginning of the Peninsular War that continued from 1808 till 1813. In the war, Spain played an important role in bringing about the downfall of Napoleon. Later on, Napoleon complained that “The Spanish ulcer destroyed me” (Europe Since Napoleon: p 101 David Thomson).

Long Answer Type Questions-II

17. Write about the reorganization of France by Napoleon.

Answer: In 1799, after Napoleon had seized power, he initiated an administration popularly known as the Consulate. France was under the rule of the Consulate between 1799 and 1804. Under the Consulate France was ruled by a small Council consisting of three Consuls. In the system Napoleon was the First Consul. The legislature was divided into four Chambers. The responsibilities of the each were totally separate. The First Chamber was to initiate a bill, the Second was to discuss it, the Third was to pass the bill and the Fourth was to consider the constitutional tenability of the bill. As a matter of fact, the system snatched away all the powers from the legislature and all the powers of the state centred round Napoleon himself. It was under the Consulate administration that Napoleon devoted himself to the task of internal reconstruction.

• Aims and Objectives of the Reforms of Napoleon: Between 1799 and 1803 Napoleon as the First Consul was free to devote his energies to the internal reconstruction of France. As an administrator and a reformer Napoleon was to some extent influenced by the contemporary philosophers. From the history of England, Greece, etc. he learnt the lessons about the need for the establishment of welfare state and reforms for the welfare of the people. In his reforms Napoleon was guided by four specific aims and objectives:
  • To establish equality and fraternity in the socio-economic life of France that had been disturbed by the Revolution.
  • To strengthen the central government and to concentrate all powers at the centre in order to root out internal disorder and indiscipline and to establish national unity.
  • To reduce the rights and powers of the self-governing institutions.
  • To leave behind a fame which would be fondly remembered by the posterity.
• The Code Napoleon vis-a-vis the Ideals of the French Revolution: The revolutionaries of France sincerely desired to do away with the numerous legal systems that prevailed in the ancient regime. They also hoped to codify the existing laws into a simple uniform national code. The National Convention actually started the work, but failed to complete it. It was under Napoleon Bonaparte that real progress was made in this direction. Under the pressure from Napoleon as the First Consul the herculean task of codifying the laws was undertaken by a Council. Yet all the plans had been supervised by Napoleon himself. For example, the Council held 84 sessions to discuss various drafts of the new codes, and Napoleon himself presided over as many as 36 sessions. The members of the Council based its approach on the revolutionary principles of absolute equality of persons, civil marriage, divorce, equal division of property among heirs, etc. But in the final draft of the Code (in 1804), however, there was much in favour of the Roman Law rather than the ideas of the revolutionary period. In a word, the Code Napoleon rejected many liberalism of the Revolution.
  • The areas where the Code deviated from the ideals of the Revolution and reflected the ideas of the ancient regime may be studied. Under the Code the rights of individual property was assured. But the despotic authority of the father over his wife and children, as prevalent in the ancient regime, was restored. A rebellious child could be imprisoned by his father. The status of women was lowered. A husband could divorce his wife on the ground of adultery. But such a right was accorded to women with much limitation. For example, a wife could divorce her husband on the same ground only if the husband insisted on bringing his mistress into the household. Such discrimination went against the ideals of liberalism of the Revolutionary period. In fact, Napoleon himself was hostile to any kind of women’s liberation. The Code Napoleon ensured equality of all in the eye of law. But at the same time the penal measures in the Code resembled more the ancient regime rather than the Revolutionary principles. For instance, trial by jury came to be much restricted. The method of arbitrary imprisonment of the pre-Revolutionary days was revived. Special prisons were established for political offenders.
  • The Code while rejected the democratic principles of the Revolutionary France adopted altogether a new concept of property-rights and rights of citizenship. While feudalism and feudal privileges were destructed, the Code insisted on equal division of estates among sons. It has been pointed out by George Rude that the most important of all the articles of the Code was that which insisted on equal division of estates among sons.

18. In what sense was the Napoleonic Empire in conflict with the ideals of the French Revolution?

Answer: Between 1799 and 1804, Napoleon successfully fought against many European powers as the soldier of the French Revolution. That is to say, he fought for the spread of the ideas born of the French Revolution to the European countries where absolute monarchy was deeply entrenched. But after 1804, when Napoleon declared himself the ‘Emperor of the French’, the real motive behind his military conquests showed up.

• The creation of the Empire did not temper in any way the idea of equality. The revolutionary principle of ‘career open to talents’ was firmly preserved.
• The fundamental changes brought about in the Revolutionary era, like the destruction of feudalism, were not interfered with. But at the same time, Napoleon was unwilling to permit the exercise of political rights. Napoleon argued that the political crises after 1789 were the result of serious political disagreements. Thus, he preferred authoritarian rule even if this meant a revival of the features of the ancient regime. Herein lay the conflict between the Napoleonic Empire and the ideals of the French Revolution.
• Some of the measures Napoleon had taken as the Emperor clearly violated the ideals of the French Revolution. For instance, he severely restricted the scope of the representative institutions.
• Individual liberties were crushed by restrictions imposed on the freedom of expression.
• Restrictions were imposed on the press. Publication of articles on controversial subjects was prohibited. Severe controls were placed on printing and publishing. All books had to be submitted to the government for scrutiny before publication.
• In the Empire, Napoleon established a new kind of personal rule breaking with the ideals of the Revolution. It has been pointed out by D. G. Wright that even Robespierre never possessed such a degree of personal authority as enjoyed by Napoleon as the Emperor of the French.

By 1810, the French Empire spread extensively over Europe. Much of Europe was ruled directly from Paris. Historians expressed doubts if Napoleon had any definite master plan for the development of Europe. But the imperial ideology was that of a centralized empire which was to be ruled from Paris.

• The dependent satellite kingdoms like Holland, Italy, Naples, Westphalia, Spain, and others were intended to provide Napoleon with troops and money.
• Napoleon also conquered his other enemies one after another. Austria and Prussia were forced to sign peace treaties and give up their lands to France. Napoleon also made his brothers rulers of the Netherlands and Spain.
• By 1808, every major European nation except England was either directly under the control of France or was allied with France.
• On the surface, it seemed that wherever it went, the French army carried the revolutionary ideas of ‘liberty, equality, and fraternity’ and Napoleon was cheered as a liberator. But soon, the conquered people realized that they had only exchanged one kind of absolute rule for another. The conquered peoples were often sent off to fight Napoleon’s wars. The citizens were forced to provide accommodation to the French soldiers in their homes. They had also to pay a high rate of tax.
• Napoleon’s rule over the empire was mainly designed to serve the interests of France. It rested on force and military, and the people did not accept the French hegemony of their free will.
• In the final analysis, liberty and equality were the minimum demands of the French Revolution. But as in France, so also in Europe, Napoleon did not permit them to flourish. Nowhere did he allow his subjects to enjoy individual liberty. In fact, Napoleon’s imperial ideology was in conflict with the revolutionary ideals of ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’.

19. Write what you know about the nationalist reactions against the Napoleonic Empire.

Answer: Napoleon’s empire building in Europe was at first welcomed by the European peoples. They viewed it as liberation from the tyranny of their own monarchs. But soon after, it became clear that under the Napoleonic Empire different countries of Europe had gone under the domination of France. The conquered countries had to make provision for quartering the French troops. Besides, measures were also taken that would only benefit France. All this operated to develop amongst the European peoples hatred for France, the French Revolution, and Napoleon. In the above background the nationalist reactions of the peoples of different European countries against the Napoleonic Empire may be studied.

• Spain: Napoleon persuaded the ruling King Ferdinand to resign all his claims on the Spanish throne. Immediately after his resignation, Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne. Interference of a foreigner like Napoleon in the internal affairs of Spain and imposition of a new King who was a foreigner cast a blow to the patriotic and nationalist spirit of the Spaniards. The priests, nobles, common people, and peasants together made a common cause and agreed to liberate the country by uprooting the Napoleonic rule. The Spanish people organized revolutionary committees which looked after local resistance. Even they recruited troops from amongst themselves. In 1808 the Spaniards forced Joseph Bonaparte to flee from Madrid (capital of Spain). Shortly after, a war broke out with Portuguese and Spaniards, in co-operation with Britain, against the French. It was the beginning of the Peninsular War that continued from 1808 till 1813. In the war, Spain played an important role in bringing about the downfall of Napoleon. Later on, Napoleon complained that “The Spanish ulcer destroyed me” (Europe Since Napoleon: p 101 David Thomson).
• Austria: Relations between the revolutionary France and Austria remained strained since long. Taking courage from the Spanish example, the Germans of Austria took up arms against Napoleon. For, in the meanwhile under the leadership of Count Stadion, an able diplomat and statesman, a feeling of patriotism was awakened amongst the Austrians. Not only that, by the adoption of the principle of ‘nation in arms,’ the Austrians were prepared for a showdown with Napoleon. In 1809 when Napoleon was busy with his Spanish adventure, Austria declared war against the French Emperor.
• Prussia: The Germans were also not immune from the nationalist reaction that was growing apace in different European peoples. It has been pointed out by C. J. H. Hayes that in Prussia, the leading German state, the reaction reached even more ominous dimensions than in Austria or in Spain. The disaster of Jena ignited the flame of patriotism amongst the Prussians. The writings of men like Fichte and Arndt as also the patriotic societies imbued the Prussians with nationalist ideals. On the popular level, the Prussian nationalism was further aroused by the victory of Prussia at Leipzig in 1813.

20. Write an essay on the reactions of the peoples of France, Germany and Iberian peninsula against Napoleon.

Answer: There is much difference between the wars waged by Napoleon before and after his assumption of the title ‘The Emperor of the French’. Before he became the Emperor, Napoleon had to wage wars merely against the government and the official armies. However, as an Emperor, he did not fight against governments alone. The peoples of different countries took a spontaneous part in them. Not only that, at a point of time in his own country (France) as well Napoleon had to encounter the reaction of the population as a whole.

France: Napoleon Bonaparte grabbed the political power of France in 1799. At that time the people did not get involved in organizing political opposition. Nor did they display any genuine enthusiasm for such activities. The promise of domestic peace and tranquility with which Napoleon had come to power was achieved partially. For example, he had success with the urban areas where efficient administrative machinery was proactive and repressive measures could also be effectively enforced. But unrest in the countryside could never be contained.
(a) In the countryside, popular opposition to the Napoleonic regime took the form of desertion from the army. Resistance to conscription was another characteristic form of reaction against Napoleon.
(b) Reaction against Napoleon, however, was not confined to the countryside. In the urban areas, the propertied class and the middle-class people rallied to the Napoleonic Empire with the hope to secure social stability. But the Napoleonic regime never succeeded in attracting unswerving (constant) loyalty of the bourgeoisie. Particularly, after 1812 when Napoleon missed victory, the popular support waned. This was one of the reasons why overnight the Napoleonic regime in France had collapsed.

Germany: After the devastating defeat of Prussia, the leading German state, in the battle of Jena (1806), Germany was determined to recover her position by uprooting the Napoleonic regime. Meanwhile, there were signs of popular resistance all over Germany. Particularly in the greater part of North Germany, the patriots developed secret communication amongst themselves. The first martyr in the movement against Napoleon was a bookseller named Johann Philippe Palm. In 1806 he was shot as he had authored a pamphlet entitled “Germany in her deep humiliation” against the French. A popular general insurrection was not yet possible. But Napoleon’s army had to meet a hostile population in the countryside of Germany.

The Iberian Peninsula: It was in 1807 that Napoleon cast his eye on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain and Portugal were the two countries in the peninsula that were loyal to Britain, a diehard enemy of Napoleon. Napoleon prepared a plan for the invasion of Portugal through Spain. Napoleon thought that it would be possible for him to absorb Portugal and Spain into the French Empire without much difficulty. But Napoleon possessed only a superficial knowledge of the Iberian Peninsula. He also made a mistake in supposing that French ideas had a wider appeal in the two countries. But unfortunately for Napoleon, the French were not at all welcome by the peoples of Portugal and Spain. In fact, popular revolts that broke out in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, prevented Napoleon from fully occupying the country. In Madrid, the capital of Spain, a large section of the politicians became strongly anti-French and for that matter anti-Napoleon. In Spain, Napoleon’s army found itself among a hostile population. In the countryside, the village headmen (mayors) organized ceremonies in which declarations of war were made.

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