Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
If you notice any errors in the notes, please mention them in the comments
Summary
The chapter describes the evolution of religious beliefs and practices in India from the eighth to the eighteenth century. It highlights how new traditions developed through interactions between different faiths, particularly within the Bhakti and Sufi movements. These traditions often challenged established religious norms, making spiritual practices more accessible to common people.
The chapter begins by explaining how religious structures such as temples, stupas, and monasteries spread across the subcontinent. Alongside these, devotional literature became a significant source for understanding beliefs. The compositions of poet-saints, often sung in regional languages, were preserved by their followers and adapted over time. Hagiographies, or biographies of saints, provide insight into how these figures were perceived by their devotees.
A key theme is the integration of different religious traditions. The worship of major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and various goddesses continued, but their forms and practices changed as they merged with local beliefs. The Puranas, composed in simple Sanskrit, were made more accessible to women and lower castes. At the same time, Brahmins incorporated local deities into mainstream traditions. The worship of Jagannatha in Puri is an example of this, where a local deity was identified as a form of Vishnu. The goddess cults also followed a similar pattern, with local goddesses being associated with well-known female deities.
The chapter also discusses conflicts between different religious beliefs. Vedic traditions often opposed newer forms of worship, such as those associated with Tantrism, which allowed more inclusive practices. Devotees of Vishnu and Shiva sometimes rejected each other’s beliefs, while tensions existed between Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
The Bhakti movement emerged as a response to these religious shifts. It emphasized direct devotion to a personal deity, often rejecting caste barriers. The Alvars, devoted to Vishnu, and the Nayanars, devoted to Shiva, were among the earliest Bhakti saints in Tamil Nadu. They expressed their devotion through hymns and rejected rigid social hierarchies. Some Bhakti saints, such as Andal and Karaikkal Ammaiyar, were women who challenged patriarchal norms.
Bhakti traditions in Karnataka were shaped by the Virashaivas, followers of Basavanna. They rejected caste discrimination, opposed Brahmanical rituals, and believed in a direct connection with Shiva. Their teachings, recorded in vachanas, were written in Kannada.
In northern India, Bhakti saints such as Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Mirabai continued these traditions. Kabir rejected religious divisions between Hindus and Muslims, emphasizing devotion to one formless God. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, also promoted devotion beyond religious rituals, encouraging worship through meditation and hymns. Mirabai, a Rajput princess, abandoned her royal life to devote herself to Krishna.
Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, also spread across India during this time. Sufi saints emphasized love for God and direct spiritual experience over rigid religious laws. Sufi orders, known as silsilas, developed throughout the subcontinent, with khanqahs serving as centers of learning and worship. The Chishti order was particularly influential, promoting inclusivity and spiritual devotion through poetry and music.
Rulers often sought alliances with Bhakti and Sufi saints to gain legitimacy. The Chola kings in Tamil Nadu built temples to honor Bhakti saints, while Mughal emperors such as Akbar visited Sufi shrines, offering gifts to gain their blessings. Despite their spiritual ideals, many Sufi and Bhakti leaders had indirect ties to political power.
The chapter concludes by discussing how historians reconstruct religious traditions using different sources, including poetry, architecture, and historical records. These traditions continue to shape religious practices in India today.
Video tutorial
Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults.
Answer: Historians suggest that the integration of cults involved two processes. One was the dissemination of Brahmanical ideas, seen in the composition, compilation, and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit to make them accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. The second process involved Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of various social groups. This integration resulted from a dialogue between what sociologists call “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” local traditions. An example of this process is seen in Puri, Orissa, where by the twelfth century, the principal deity was identified as Jagannatha, a form of Vishnu. Similarly, local goddesses, often worshipped as stones smeared with ochre, were incorporated into the Puranic framework as wives of major deities like Vishnu and Shiva.
2. To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions?
Answer: The architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions. Some architectural features of mosques are universal, such as their orientation towards Mecca, evident in the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). However, there are several features that show variations, such as roofs and building materials. For example, a mosque in Kerala from the thirteenth century has a shikhara-like roof, blending local temple architectural elements with Islamic structural requirements. The Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar, built in 1395, showcases Kashmiri wooden architecture, with a spire and beautifully carved eaves, and is decorated with papier-mâché. These examples illustrate how local architectural traditions merged with Islamic principles to create a distinct style of mosque architecture in the subcontinent.
3. What were the similarities and differences between the be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions?
Answer: The be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions differed primarily in their adherence to Islamic law (shari‘a). The ba-shari‘a sufis complied with the shari‘a, following its rules and rituals. In contrast, the be-shari‘a sufis deliberately defied the shari‘a, often ignoring rituals and observing extreme forms of asceticism. They were known by various names such as Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, and Haidaris. Both traditions, however, shared the common goal of seeking spiritual closeness to God, though their methods and practices varied significantly. The ba-shari‘a sufis maintained a more structured approach within the framework of Islamic law, while the be-shari‘a sufis adopted a more radical and unconventional path.
4. Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars, and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.
Answer: Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds, including Brahmanas, artisans, cultivators, and even castes considered “untouchable”.
The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth, which won them followers among those marginalized within the Brahmanical social order. The Lingayats encouraged practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
Additionally, the compositions of the Alvars and Nayanars were sometimes considered as important as the Vedas, challenging the exclusivity of Brahmanical texts. The Tamil anthology Nalayira Divyaprabandham was often described as the Tamil Veda, equating its significance with the Sanskrit Vedas
5. Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Baba Guru Nanak, and the ways in which these have been transmitted.
Answer: Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in Nankana Sahib, Punjab. He spent time among Sufis and Bhaktas and traveled widely. His teachings promoted nirguna bhakti, rejecting external religious practices such as sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities, and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims. He believed the Absolute, or “rab,” had no gender or form and emphasized connecting with the Divine through remembering and repeating the Divine Name. His hymns, called “shabad,” were composed in Punjabi and sung in various ragas with his attendant Mardana playing the rabab.
Guru Nanak organized his followers into a community and established congregational worship (sangat) involving collective recitation. He appointed Guru Angad as his successor, and this tradition continued for 200 years. His hymns were compiled by Guru Arjan in the Adi Granth Sahib, which later became the Guru Granth Sahib under Guru Gobind Singh.
Short essay-type answers
6. Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism
Sufism emerged in the early centuries of Islam as a movement emphasizing asceticism and mysticism in response to the materialism of the Caliphate. Sufis sought salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following His commands and emulating the Prophet Muhammad, whom they regarded as a perfect human being. They interpreted the Qur’an based on personal experience rather than rigid scholastic methods.
By the eleventh century, Sufism had evolved into a well-structured movement with extensive literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices. Institutionally, Sufis organized their communities around hospices called khanqahs, led by a shaikh (or pir/murshid). These leaders enrolled disciples (murids), appointed successors (khalifas), and established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction.
Sufi lineages, or silsilas, developed around the twelfth century, linking masters and disciples in an unbroken spiritual chain tracing back to the Prophet Muhammad. Spiritual power and blessings were transmitted through these chains, and initiation rituals involved an oath of allegiance, the wearing of a patched garment, and the shaving of the head.
A significant practice in Sufism was the veneration of saints. When a shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became a center of devotion. Followers performed pilgrimages (ziyarat) to these shrines, particularly on the saint’s death anniversary (urs), believing that in death, the saint was united with God and could intercede on behalf of devotees.
Certain Sufis lived outside khanqahs and embraced extreme asceticism, celibacy, and mendicancy. They rejected rituals and were known by various names, such as Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, and Haidaris. These figures were often called be-shari‘a sufis due to their defiance of Islamic law, in contrast to ba-shari‘a sufis, who followed it.
Sufis also contributed to devotional music and poetry. The Chishtis, one of the most influential Sufi orders in India, encouraged practices like sama‘ (mystical music and dance) and qawwali to achieve spiritual ecstasy. Many Sufi poets composed verses in local languages to spread their teachings.
Over time, Sufis played an essential role in social and religious life, gaining followers across different communities. Their spiritual authority attracted both common people and rulers, who sought their blessings and legitimacy.
7. Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis.
Rulers attempted to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis for political legitimacy, popular support, and religious patronage.
The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions, granting land and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. They built magnificent Shiva temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, and Gangaikondacholapuram, under their patronage. The visions of the Nayanars inspired artists, and the Chola kings used temple architecture to proclaim their divine support and power. They also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples under royal patronage and organized them into the text Tevaram. Evidence suggests that in 945 CE, the Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar in a Shiva temple, which were carried in processions during the festivals of these saints.
Similarly, rulers sought connections with the Sufis due to their immense influence over the masses. The Chishti tradition, known for its austerity and detachment from political power, still maintained interactions with rulers. Sufis accepted donations and grants from the political elite, and the Sultans established charitable trusts (auqaf) for their hospices and granted tax-free land (inam). The Sufis’ piety and scholarship, as well as the belief in their miraculous powers, made them popular among the masses, whose support kings wished to secure.
Kings not only demonstrated their association with Sufis but also sought legitimacy from them. When the Turks established the Delhi Sultanate, they resisted the imposition of shari‘a as state law, fearing opposition from their largely non-Muslim subjects. Instead, they turned to the Sufis, who derived their authority directly from God. The Sultans valued the belief that the auliya (Sufi saints) could intercede with God to improve people’s material and spiritual conditions. This explains why kings often sought to have their tombs built near Sufi shrines and hospices.
Thus, rulers connected with the traditions of the Nayanars and Sufis to assert divine legitimacy, strengthen their rule, and gain popular support among their subjects.
8. Analyse, with illustrations, why Bhakti and Sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions.
Answer: Bhakti and Sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages to communicate their ideas effectively to diverse communities. In Delhi, the Chishti Sufis conversed in Hindavi, the local language of the people. Some Sufis, such as Baba Farid, composed verses in local languages, which were later incorporated into the Guru Granth Sahib. Others expressed their devotion through masnavis, or long poems, using allegories of divine love. For example, Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat narrated the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, symbolizing the soul’s journey toward the divine.
In the Deccan, a different genre of Sufi poetry emerged in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, written in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu. These poems were often sung by women while performing household chores. Other compositions, such as lullabies (lurinama) and wedding songs (shadinama), reflected the inspiration drawn from Bhakti traditions, including the Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur. Through these mediums, Islamic ideas gradually integrated into the cultural fabric of the Deccan.
Bhakti saints also employed various languages to make their teachings accessible. Kabir’s poems were composed in multiple languages and dialects, including sant bhasa, a special language of Nirguna poets. His works also featured ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), which used paradoxical expressions to convey mystical experiences. His verses included terms from Islamic traditions, such as Allah and Hazrat, as well as those from Vedantic traditions, such as Brahman and Atman.
Similarly, Mirabai composed bhajans that expressed her deep devotion to Krishna. Her songs, transmitted orally for centuries, were characterized by intense emotion and were sung by people, especially those from marginalized communities.
The adoption of multiple languages by Bhakti and Sufi thinkers allowed them to transcend social and religious barriers, enabling their messages to reach a broader audience and fostering inclusivity in spiritual practices.
9. Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them.
Answer: The religious and social ideas of Bhakti and Sufi traditions reflect diverse beliefs and practices across different regions of India. The selected sources highlight these ideas through various figures and texts.
The first source discusses the beliefs of the Lingayats, a sect that emerged in Karnataka in the 12th century. They rejected caste distinctions and Brahmanical rituals, believing that devotees would be united with Shiva after death, negating the cycle of rebirth. They also promoted widow remarriage and post-puberty marriages, which were against the Brahmanical Dharmashastras.
The second source features Kabir, a Bhakti saint who criticized religious divisions. He argued against distinctions between Hindu and Muslim deities, emphasizing the unity of God. His verses express that devotion transcends religious identities, condemning superficial rituals and sectarian conflicts.
The third source focuses on Mirabai, a Rajput princess and devotee of Krishna. She defied traditional caste and gender norms by rejecting her royal status and composing devotional songs. She refused societal expectations and considered Krishna her only master, a belief that continued to inspire the lower castes and marginalized communities.
The fourth source presents the practices of the Sufis, highlighting their relationship with the state. While some, like the Chishtis, distanced themselves from political authorities, others, such as the Naqshbandis, maintained close ties with rulers. This interaction influenced policies and religious practices, leading to a blend of spiritual and political interests.
The fifth source discusses the Alvars and Nayanars, who worshipped Vishnu and Shiva respectively. Their compositions challenged the authority of the Brahmanas and emphasized direct devotion to God. Some, like the Alvar saint Tondaradippodi, praised outcastes over the Brahmanas who lacked devotion, promoting inclusivity in worship.
These sources illustrate the evolving religious and social landscape in medieval India, highlighting the diversity of spiritual thought and the rejection of orthodox structures in favor of personal devotion.
Extras
Additional questions and answers
Coming soon
Additional MCQs
Coming soon
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
Get notes of other boards, classes, and subjects