Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones (The Harappan Civilisation) which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
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Summary
The Harappan civilisation, also known as the Indus Valley civilisation, flourished between 2600 and 1900 BCE. It was named after Harappa, the first site where its remains were found. This civilisation is recognised for its well-planned cities, trade networks, and advanced craftsmanship.
Harappan cities were carefully planned with wide streets, drainage systems, and large buildings. Mohenjodaro, one of the most significant sites, was divided into two sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel housed important structures such as the Great Bath, which may have been used for ritual bathing. The Lower Town contained houses built around courtyards, with wells and bathrooms. The city had an efficient drainage system, where every house was connected to street drains.
The people of this civilisation relied on agriculture and trade. They grew wheat, barley, lentils, and other crops. They also domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Some settlements were near rivers, which helped in irrigation. Others used reservoirs to store water. Trade played a major role in their economy, with goods being exchanged both within the region and with distant lands such as Mesopotamia and Oman. Materials like copper, lapis lazuli, and shells were brought from different places for making ornaments and tools.
Craft production was highly developed. Sites like Chanhudaro specialised in bead-making, shell-cutting, and metalwork. Beads were made from materials such as carnelian, jasper, and gold. Pottery was another important craft, often decorated with designs. The standardisation of weights and measures suggests that trade and commerce were well organised.
The Harappans used a script that remains undeciphered. It was written on seals, pottery, and copper tools. The seals, often bearing images of animals and human figures, were possibly used for trade or administrative purposes. Some of these images have been linked to later religious beliefs, such as a figure in a yogic posture being compared to Shiva.
Social differences existed, though they were not as pronounced as in some other ancient civilisations. People were generally buried in simple graves, with some having ornaments or pottery. This suggests that while some individuals had more wealth, the society was not highly stratified.
The decline of the civilisation started around 1800 BCE. Many settlements were abandoned, and the distinctive features of Harappan culture disappeared. Some scholars believe this was due to environmental changes such as shifting rivers or floods. Others suggest resource depletion or external invasions.
The Harappan civilisation was rediscovered in the early 20th century. Archaeologists like John Marshall and R.E.M. Wheeler played key roles in excavating sites. New discoveries continue to provide insights into this ancient society. Although the script remains a mystery, the evidence from their cities, crafts, and trade networks reveals a highly organised and sophisticated way of life.
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Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
Answer: The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. Archaeologists have reconstructed dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds. Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame. Millets were found at sites in Gujarat, while finds of rice were relatively rare. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig, which were domesticated. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer, and gharial were also found. Bones of fish and fowl were present as well. Farmers and pastoralists would have provided grains and domesticated animals, while hunting communities may have supplied meat from wild species.
2. How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice?
Answer: Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society by studying burials and artefacts. Burials indicate possible social distinctions, as some graves had pottery and ornaments while others did not. Some burial pits were lined with bricks, which may suggest a higher status. Another method is examining artefacts, which are classified as utilitarian or luxuries. Utilitarian objects, made from common materials like stone or clay, were found throughout settlements, while luxury items, such as faience pots, gold jewellery, and rare stones, were mostly found in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The concentration of such rare objects in major urban centres suggests social hierarchies and economic disparities among the Harappans.
3. Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: Yes, the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning. One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses were built along them. Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. Drainage systems were found not only in large cities like Mohenjodaro but also in smaller settlements such as Lothal. This well-organised drainage system reflects a high level of urban planning and civic management.
4. List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
Answer: The materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation included stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite; metals like copper, bronze, and gold; as well as shell, faience, and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together, while others had gold caps.
The process of making carnelian beads involved several steps. Nodules of carnelian were chipped into rough shapes and then finely flaked into their final form. To achieve the red color, the yellowish raw material was fired at various stages of production. The beads were then ground, polished, and drilled using specialized drills. Such drills have been found at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira.
5. Look at Fig. 1.30 and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
Answer: The skeleton in Fig. 1.30 is placed in an extended position, lying on its back inside a burial pit. Several pottery vessels are placed near the head of the skeleton, likely as burial offerings. The body has bangles on the arms. In Harappan burials, ornaments such as bangles, rings, and beads have been found on both male and female skeletons, so the presence of jewellery does not necessarily indicate the sex of the skeleton. However, large numbers of bangles are associated more commonly with female burials.
Short essay-type answers
6. Describe some of the distinctive features of Mohenjodaro.
Answer: Mohenjodaro was a planned urban centre and one of the most well-known sites of the Harappan civilisation. The settlement was divided into two sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel was smaller but built on mud brick platforms and was physically separated from the Lower Town by a wall. The Lower Town was also walled, with several buildings constructed on platforms that served as foundations.
One of the most distinctive features of Mohenjodaro was its carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out in an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. Streets with drains were laid out first, and houses were built along them. Every house had at least one wall along a street to allow domestic wastewater to flow into the street drains. House drains emptied into sumps or cesspits where solid waste settled, while wastewater flowed out into the street drains.
The domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro included houses built around a courtyard with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was likely the centre for various activities such as cooking and weaving. The buildings reflected a concern for privacy, with no windows on ground-level walls and entrances that did not give a direct view of the interior. Every house had its own bathroom with brick flooring and drains connected to the street drains. Some houses had staircases, indicating a second storey or access to the roof. Wells were also common, and Mohenjodaro had about 700 of them.
The Citadel contained structures that were probably used for special public purposes, such as the Great Bath and a warehouse. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank with two flights of steps leading into it, surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. The tank was made watertight using bricks set on edge with a mortar of gypsum. A large well supplied water to the tank, and a drain carried away the used water. Scholars suggest that the Great Bath may have been used for ritual bathing.
The warehouse was another massive structure in the Citadel, with its lower brick portions still remaining. The upper portions, likely made of wood, have decayed over time. These structures suggest organised urban planning and possibly some form of centralised administration in Mohenjodaro.
7. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
Answer: The raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation included a variety of locally available and imported materials. Some of these were:
- Stones: Carnelian (from Bharuch, Gujarat), Jasper, Crystal, Quartz, and Steatite (from South Rajasthan and North Gujarat)
- Metals: Copper (from Khetri region, Rajasthan), Bronze, Gold (from South India), and Silver
- Shell: Obtained from coastal sites like Nageshwar and Balakot
- Faience: Made from ground sand or silica mixed with colour and gum, then fired
- Terracotta: Made from burnt clay
- Wood: Used for crafting tools and structures
These raw materials were procured through various strategies:
- The Harappans established settlements near sources of raw materials, such as Nageshwar and Balakot for shell, Shortughai in Afghanistan for lapis lazuli, and Lothal for carnelian and steatite.
- Expeditions were sent to regions like the Khetri area in Rajasthan for copper and South India for gold.
- Trade and exchange networks facilitated long-distance procurement. Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro-beads found in distant regions suggest interactions with local communities.
- Maritime trade was crucial for acquiring materials from Mesopotamia, Oman, and Bahrain. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha (possibly the Harappan region) as a source of copper, carnelian, lapis lazuli, and other resources. Copper was likely imported from Oman, as indicated by chemical analyses showing traces of nickel in both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts.
- Overland trade using bullock carts and riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries helped in transporting raw materials across different regions.
8. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
Answer: Archaeologists reconstruct the past by using material evidence such as pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, and structures. Since organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds decompose, archaeologists mainly rely on surviving materials like stone, burnt clay, and metal. They classify artefacts based on material and function, distinguishing between tools, ornaments, or ritual objects.
Archaeologists examine the context in which objects are found—whether in houses, drains, graves, or kilns—to determine their use. In cases where direct evidence is lacking, indirect methods are used. For instance, traces of cotton suggest the presence of textiles, and depictions in sculptures provide insights into clothing.
Stratigraphy plays a key role in dating artefacts by studying layers of occupation. The lowest layers are the oldest, and the highest are the most recent. By identifying layers and artefacts found within them, archaeologists establish cultural sequences.
The discovery of structures like the Great Bath, fire altars, and seals with animal motifs has led archaeologists to infer aspects of Harappan ritual practices. However, interpretations remain speculative, as the Harappan script remains undeciphered.
Archaeologists also look at social and economic structures through burials, artefact distribution, and craft production centers. The presence of luxury goods like faience pots, beads, and gold ornaments in large urban settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa suggests social differentiation.
Additionally, they investigate long-distance trade and resource procurement through the study of artefacts made from non-local materials. Evidence from sites like Nageshwar and Balakot suggests specialized craft production, while finds of Harappan goods in Mesopotamia indicate trade connections.
Early archaeologists, such as John Marshall, used horizontal excavation methods, but later, R.E.M. Wheeler introduced stratigraphic excavation to improve accuracy. Modern archaeologists employ scientific techniques such as surface exploration, chemical analysis, and microscopic examination of materials.
Despite these advancements, many aspects of ancient civilizations remain unknown, and interpretations continue to evolve with new discoveries.
9. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Answer: There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society. Take, for instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights, and bricks. Notably, bricks, though obviously not produced in any single centre, were of a uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. Settlements were strategically set up in specific locations for various reasons. Besides, labour was mobilised for making bricks and for the construction of massive walls and platforms.
If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological records provide no immediate answers. A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists, but no spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king.” This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region. However, the ritual practices of the Harappan civilisation are not well understood, nor are there any means of knowing whether those who performed them also held political power.
Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others suggest there was no single ruler but several, with Mohenjodaro having a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. As of now, the last theory seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.
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