Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 11 (first year) History textbook, chapter 5 Changing Cultural Traditions which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
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1. Which elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries?
Answer: The elements of Greek and Roman culture that were revived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries included literature, architecture, and painting, which contributed to the emergence of a new ‘humanist’ culture. This culture emphasized the belief that man, as an individual, was capable of making his own decisions and developing his skills. Ancient texts were closely studied, and subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy—originally associated with Roman humanitas—were revived. The artistic styles of Greek and Roman sculptures were admired and continued, with artists striving for realism and perfect proportions. Roman architecture was also revived, inspiring the ‘classical’ architectural style. Additionally, the study of law shifted to include the context of earlier Roman culture.
2. Compare details of Italian architecture of this period with Islamic architecture.
Answer: Italian architecture of this period was characterized by a revival of classical Roman styles, emphasizing symmetry, proportion, and geometry. Architects like Filippo Brunelleschi and Michelangelo designed structures that featured domes, columns, and arches reminiscent of ancient Rome. The city of Rome was revitalized, and architecture took inspiration from imperial Roman buildings. Wealthy patrons, including popes and aristocrats, commissioned architects and artists to create grand structures decorated with paintings, sculptures, and reliefs.
Islamic architecture, on the other hand, was influenced by Persian, Byzantine, and Central Asian traditions. It was known for intricate geometric patterns, arabesques, calligraphy, and the extensive use of domes, minarets, and courtyards. Mosques, madrasas, and palaces often featured elaborate tilework, muqarnas (stalactite-like decorations), and large iwans (vaulted halls opening onto a courtyard). Unlike Italian architecture, which emphasized a revival of classical antiquity, Islamic architecture maintained and developed its unique aesthetic based on religious and cultural traditions.
3. Why were Italian towns the first to experience the ideas of humanism?
Answer: Italian towns were the first to experience the ideas of humanism because they had early universities such as Padua and Bologna, which had been centers of legal studies since the eleventh century. Commerce was the chief activity in these cities, increasing the demand for lawyers and notaries to manage trade agreements. This led to a shift in education, where law was studied in the context of earlier Roman culture. Francesco Petrarch emphasized a close reading of ancient authors, fostering a new intellectual movement. This culture, later labeled as humanism, promoted subjects like grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy, which were not connected with religion and emphasized individual skills through discussion and debate. The presence of wealthy merchant families and patrons of art and learning in cities like Florence and Venice also played a crucial role in fostering humanist ideals.
4. Compare the Venetian idea of good government with those in contemporary France.
Answer: The Venetian idea of good government, as described by Cardinal Gasparo Contarini in The Commonwealth and Government of Venice (1534), was based on a council where all gentlemen of the city above the age of 25 were admitted. The common people were deliberately excluded from governance to avoid popular tumults and instability. Governance was defined by nobility of lineage rather than wealth, ensuring that rule was neither by a few powerful elites nor entirely by the masses but by all who were noble by birth or ennobled by virtue.
In contrast, contemporary France was characterized by a monarchical system where the king exercised absolute authority, often justifying his rule through the doctrine of divine right. Unlike Venice, where governance was shared among the nobility within a republic, France had a centralized government with power concentrated in the hands of the monarch, supported by a bureaucratic structure and an aristocracy that held privileges by virtue of royal favor rather than a republican tradition.
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5. What were the features of humanist thought?
Answer: The features of humanist thought included a new belief that man, as an individual, was capable of making his own decisions and developing his skills. This was in contrast to the medieval period, where thinking was controlled by the church. Humanism emphasized the study of classical Greek and Roman texts, which were believed to hold the key to understanding true civilization.
The term “humanist” was used for masters who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion, emphasizing skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate. Humanists thought they were restoring civilization after centuries of darkness following the collapse of the Roman Empire. They used the term “modern” to describe the period from the fifteenth century onwards.
Humanists also placed emphasis on the dignity of man. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, in On the Dignity of Man, highlighted the importance of debate in attaining knowledge. Humanists promoted education, believing that individuals were capable of shaping their own lives beyond the mere pursuit of power and money. They challenged the strict divisions of medieval feudal society.
Art, architecture, and literature played significant roles in transmitting humanist ideas. Artists aimed for realism, drawing inspiration from ancient Roman sculptures and using scientific knowledge to enhance their work. The use of oil painting and geometric perspectives improved the depth and richness of their art. Writers and scholars, such as Niccolò Machiavelli, discussed human nature and politics, emphasizing self-interest as a primary motivator for human actions.
Humanism also contributed to the weakening of religious control over human life. While many humanists were not irreligious, they advocated for a more individualistic approach to faith. Christian humanists like Thomas More and Erasmus criticized the corruption of the Church and called for a return to the simple teachings of early Christianity. The Protestant Reformation, led by figures like Martin Luther, was influenced by humanist ideas that emphasized individual faith over institutional authority.
Thus, humanist thought was characterized by a focus on the individual, a revival of classical learning, an emphasis on education and debate, the pursuit of realism in art, and a gradual shift away from the dominance of religious institutions in intellectual and cultural life.
6. Write a careful account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth-century Europeans.
Answer: By the seventeenth century, the world appeared significantly different to Europeans due to the transformative changes that had taken place from the fourteenth century onwards. The growth of towns across Europe led to the development of a distinct urban culture, with cities like Florence, Venice, and Rome emerging as centers of art and learning. Townspeople saw themselves as more civilized than rural populations. The invention of printing made books and knowledge accessible to many, fostering a sense of history and a contrast between the modern world and the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome.
The period also witnessed a shift in religious perspectives, with individuals believing that religion was a matter of personal choice. The church’s earth-centric belief system was overturned by scientific discoveries that reshaped the understanding of the solar system. Additionally, new geographical knowledge challenged the long-held view that the Mediterranean was the center of the world.
The Renaissance, as historians later termed this period, emphasized humanism, where individuals were considered capable of making their own decisions and developing their skills. This was a contrast to medieval times, when thought was controlled by the church. The revival of Italian cities, particularly their economic and political structures, also contributed to the new worldview. Wealthy merchants and bankers played an active role in governance, reducing the dominance of the clergy and feudal lords.
The expansion of trade, the influence of Arab and Byzantine scholarship, and the study of classical texts led to new intellectual developments. Universities played a crucial role in spreading humanist thought, and artists began to focus on realism, drawing inspiration from nature and human anatomy. Advances in science, such as Copernicus’ heliocentric theory and Newton’s laws of motion, provided new explanations for natural phenomena, reducing the reliance on religious interpretations.
In this changing world, the Protestant Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to the formation of new Christian sects. The rise of individualism and the idea that people had rights beyond the feudal order also marked a significant shift. The separation of public and private life began to emerge, and the concept of personal identity became more pronounced. National identities developed as languages played a role in unifying people within emerging nation-states.
By the seventeenth century, Europeans had moved away from medieval traditions, embracing new ways of thinking, governing, and understanding the world. This period laid the foundation for further intellectual, political, and scientific advancements in the centuries that followed.
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Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
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