Get here the summary, questions, answers, textbook solutions, extras, and pdf of Chapter 4 “Early Stages of Collective Action: Characteristics and Analysis” of the West Bengal Board (WBBSE) Class 10 (Madhyamik) History (Social Science) textbook. However, the given notes/solutions should only be used for references and should be modified/changed according to needs.
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Summary
After the battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1857), the Revolt of 1857 was the next major expression of discontent (1764). There was a feeling of rebellion because of the British policy of annexation, the years of economic exploitation by the East India Company, and the complaints of Indian sepoys. Most of the uprising took place in the cities of Delhi, Kanpur, Awadh, Barrackpore, Meerut, Lucknow, Muradabad, Bareilly, Bundelkhand, Allahabad, Jhansi, Shahjanpur, Fatehpur, Benaras, Arrah, Rohilkhand, and Gaya. Most European historians note that it was an uprising of Indian soldiers. Since the uprising only affected a localised region of India, it cannot be considered an all-out war for independence. However, India’s nationalists celebrate this as the beginning of India’s long road to independence.
The failure of the 1857 Revolt was due to a lack of leadership and organisation. Tantia Topi, Laxmi Bai, and Nana Saheb were the only rebel leaders who had military experience. The mutiny ultimately failed due to a lack of popular support and the indifference of Indian rulers. The Revolt caused the British to change how they treated the Indian subcontinent. With the passing of the Government of India Act in 1858, the English East India Company no longer had a monopoly on Indian affairs, and the subcontinent was officially added to the British Empire.
Around the same time, Rammohan Roy’s allies volunteered to organise political groups. The original organisation, known as the “Bangabhasha Prakashika Sabha,” was established in 1836. Petitions and memorial writings were sent to the government. In July 1838, a group called the “Landholders’ Society” was formed. This was the first organised political action. It was set up to coordinate opposition to unfair government policies.
It was on the issues of Civil Service and the Press Act that the Indian Association (1876) led the first all-India agitation in 1877–78. Calcutta (now Kolkata) played host to two separate “National Conferences” in 1883 and 1885. Nabagopal Mitra was the man behind planning the Hindu Mela. This brand-new theatre company was outspokenly hostile to the British. Dinabandhu Mitra’s “Nil Darpan” exposed the ruthless tyranny of indigo planters, which ultimately resulted in Lytton’s Dramatic Performance Act being passed in 1876. Literature from India’s 19th century helped spark a sense of national pride. Writers like Bankim Chandra, Vivekananda, and Rabindranath spread messages of nationalism throughout their works. The work of Bankim Chandra, particularly the poem “Anandamath,” was crucial in raising the level of national consciousness. The song “Bande Mataram,” which appears in his book “Anandamath,” is now the official national anthem.
As Indian nationalism rose, the image of Bharat Mata came to symbolise Indian pride and national identity. Rabindranath’s novel Gora is where his vision of nationalism found its most articulate form, while Vivekananda’s “Bartaman Bharat” expresses profound thoughts on the Indian nation. The final paragraph is an open letter to all Indians, calling on them to realise their true national identity as Indians.
Textual (Oriental)
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Because of which of the following did the feudal elements break out in Revolt ?
(a) Land policy of the British
(b) Industrial policy of the British
(c) Economic policy of the British
(d) Land-revenue policy of the British
Answer: (d) Land-revenue policy of the British
2. Which of the following brought about a change in the nomenclature of the head of the British administration in India ?
(a) Revolt of 1857
(b) Act of 1858
(c) Queen’s Proclamation
(d) Act for the Better Government in India
Answer: (c) Queen’s Proclamation
3. Of the following who was affectionately called the ‘Grandfather of Indian nationalism’?
(a) Nabagopal Mitra
(b) Ganandranath Tagore
(c) Rajnarayan Bose
(d) Surendranath Banerjee
Answer: (c) Rajnarayan Bose
Tick off True/False
1. Considered from the nature of the rising the old school of historians found it difficult to call the Revolt of 1857 as the ‘War of Independence’
Answer: True
2. Despite failure the Bangabhasa Prakashika Sabha paved the way for the foundation of the Indian National Congress.
Answer: False
3. Abanindranath’s paintings were designed as an organized protest against foreign influences.
Answer: True
Fill in the Blanks
1. In Bengal _____, near Calcutta, was the centre of initial spark of the Revolt of 1857. (Krishnanagar/Barrackpore/Barasat/Bashirhat)
Answer: Barrackpore
2. One of the aims of the Indian Association was to rally the masses in the great _____ movement of the day (social/political/economic/administrative)
Answer: political
Assertion and Reason
1. Which of the following statements about the Revolt of 1857 are true ?
(a) Conservative section of the people who did not join the Revolt were not at all aggrieved against the British rule.
(b) The recruitment policy of the British government was a cause of discontent among the sepoys.
(c) The Talukdars or landed magnates had major grievances against the foreign British rulers.
(d) The religious sentiments of the sepoys also came in conflict with service conditions.
Select the answer:
(i) b, c and d
(ii) a, c and d
(iii) a, b and d
(iv) All of these
Answer: (i) b, c and d
2. Which of the following statements are true about the Landholders’ Society of Bengal ?
(a) The constitution of the Society was quite democratic.
(b) The Society taught people how to assert their claim and to ‘give expression to their opinion’.
(c) The Society did not raise the issues concerning general people to the British administrators in India.
(d) The Society advocated for the interests of the zamindars.
Select the answer:
(i) a, b and c
(ii) a, b and d
(iii) a, c and d
(iv) All of these
Answer: (ii) a, b and d
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Which act that brought an end to the East India Company’s rule in India?
Answer: The Act known as the Act for the Better Government of India, passed on 2 August 1858, brought an end to the rule of the East India Company in India.
2. Which organization regarded as the first political association of Bengal?
Answer: The Bangabhasa Prakashika Sabha is regarded as the first political association of India, having been founded in Bengal in 1836 to organize discussions on political matters.
3. What was the cause of failure of the Bangabhasa Prakashika Sabha?
Answer: Dwelling upon the cause of the failure of the Bangabhasa Prakashika Sabha, the Sambad Prabhakar published an article in 1852 (2 March). It was categorically stated that the Sabha could not survive because of the ‘lack of unity’.
Analytical Answer Type Questions
1. What was the character of the Revolt of 1857?
Answer: The Revolt of 1857, long mistaken as merely a mutiny of Indian sepoys, possessed a character that extended beyond the military as it was joined by different classes of the civilian population, giving it a greater dimension. Thus, it is better termed the Revolt of 1857 or Great Revolt of 1857 instead of Sepoy Mutiny.
Its characteristic features were varied. The sepoy actions were often followed or accompanied by rebellion in the city and countryside, with common people in several places rising in revolt even before the sepoys. Another characteristic feature was the rebels burning government records. Despite British attempts to create a Hindu-Muslim divide, the two communities fought shoulder to shoulder against the colonial rulers. The rebels showed commendable courage and dedication, and in areas like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, peasants and artisans also rebelled against British rulers and the new zamindars.
Modern historians are of the opinion that though it began with the uprising of the sepoys, it soon assumed the nature of a revolt of the civilian population, giving it the character of a popular upsurge, and thus cannot be termed a ‘feudal revolt’. Professor S. N. Sen called it a ‘national rising’, although to a limited extent. Professor R. C. Mazumder noted that what began as a mutiny ended in certain areas as an outbreak of the civil population, while Professor S. B. Chaudhuri saw it as ‘the first combined attempt of many classes of people to challenge a foreign power’.
2. What was the importance of the Bangabhasa Prakashika Sabha?
Answer: The importance of the Bangabhasa Prakashika Sabha lies primarily in the fact that it is regarded as the first political association of India, founded in Bengal in 1836. It represented an early, humble attempt to organize discussions on political matters affecting the country, such as the imposition of taxes on rent-free lands by British administrators. Although the Sabha ultimately failed to strengthen the political consciousness of the people of Bengal, did not have a long life, and reportedly could not survive due to a ‘lack of unity’, its significance is undeniable. Despite its failure, the Sabha paved the way for later organizational efforts in forming political associations, inspiring the establishment of many subsequent groups.
3. What were the aims and objectives of the Indian Association?
Answer: The Indian Association (Bharat Sabha) was established with four main political aims and objectives:
(i) Creation of a strong body of public opinion all over the country.
(ii) Uniting the various people of India on the basis of a common political ideal.
(iii) Promotion of friendly relations between the Hindus and Muslims.
(iv) To rally the masses in the great political movement of the day.
Explanatory Answer Type Questions
1. Why was the educated Bengali intelligentsia apathetic to the rebels of the Revolt of 1857?
Answer: The Bengali intelligentsia was apathetic to the Revolt of 1857 for several reasons. This is a ticklish problem, and none has been able to offer any satisfactory explanation, but some points may be relevant. The Bengali intellectuals in the mid-eighteenth century were very much conscious of their own interest. The revolt broke out over the religious question concerning the Enfield Rifle, which aligned with the fears of orthodox Hindus in Calcutta who suspected the British were destroying their religion and caste. The intellectuals of Bengal, being against orthodoxy and fanaticism, considered the rebel sepoys as allies of social reaction, giving them no option but to oppose the rebellion.
There were also socio-economic reasons. The intellectuals belonged to the middle class well-to-do families that were a product of the colonial structure, gaining economic status through trade and commerce and intellectual position through English education. They apprehended that the success of the Revolt of 1857 would mean the return of the old social order with all its reactionary principles and ideals. Hence, the Bengali intelligentsia did not sympathize with the rebels. Furthermore, as pointed out by Sri Benoy Ghose, the growing political consciousness of the English-educated Bengali middle class shaped their hostility; they saw no hope in the Revolt of 1857 and thus condemned the rebels.
2. Explain the inner meaning of the cartoon under the title ‘University machine’.
Answer: The cartoon ‘University Machine’ by Gaganendranath Tagore depicts a clock striking 10.30 am, with smoke coming out of the chimney of the university building, which is shaped like big fat tomes (very large heavy books). Students throng at the gate. After the courses are done, the students come out flattened and crippled, pressed between the tomes. Two figures stand in silhouette on pillars – one in European costume, the other in Indian turban – likely representing the university founders, who are now shadowed out and no longer moving forces. The crowd at the gate is in Bengali dress.
The inner meaning of the cartoon is a satire, undercut with sadness, critiquing the university system of the time. It portrays the university as a dehumanizing ‘machine’ that crushes the individuality and vitality of students, leaving them ‘flattened and crippled’. It also suggests the fading influence or relevance of the original founders and perhaps comments on the nature of the student population entering the system.
3. Show by an example why did the educated Bengali society oppose the rebellion of 1857. How did the Queen’s Proclamation impact the administrature set up of the country?
Answer: The educated Bengali society opposed the rebellion of 1857 primarily because they viewed the rebels, particularly the sepoys involved in the initial spark at Barrackpore over religious issues (Enfield Rifle), as allies of social reaction, orthodoxy, and fanaticism, which the intellectuals stood against. An example illustrating this opposition is their general attitude: they considered the rebel sepoys allies of social reaction and, driven by their socio-economic position derived from the colonial structure (trade, commerce, English education), they apprehended a return to an old, reactionary social order if the revolt succeeded. Consequently, the Bengali intelligentsia did not sympathize with the rebels and condemned them, seeing no hope for progress in the revolt.
The Queen’s Proclamation of 1 November 1858, following the Revolt of 1857, significantly impacted the administrative setup. It brought an end to the East India Company’s rule, transferring the control of Indian government directly to the British Crown, as enacted by the Act for the Better Government of India (2 August 1858). Queen Victoria assumed direct responsibility for Indian administration. The designation ‘Governor-General of India’ had the honourific title of ‘Viceroy’ added; Lord Canning became the first Viceroy. From 1858, the Governor-General and Viceroy became the supreme executive and legislative authority. The Proclamation also announced policy changes: the British Government stated it had no desire for further territorial expansion and would not interfere with the established customs or religion of the Indian people. This period also led to an extensive reorganization of the army and civil administration, although the basic exploitative nature of British rule hardly changed.
4. With what objectives was the Indian Association founded? What were its activities?
Answer: The Indian Association (Bharat Sabha), founded on 26 July 1876, was established with four main political objectives:
(i) Creation of a strong body of public opinion all over the country.
(ii) Uniting the various people of India on the basis of a common political ideal.
(iii) Promotion of friendly relations between the Hindus and Muslims.
(iv) To rally the masses in the great political movement of the day.
The activities of the Indian Association constituted an important phase in the growth of the national movement. The Association kept a watchful eye on all matters of the Indian administration. Its members used to organise protest-meetings whenever they considered an act of the government to be detrimental to the interest of the people; for example, it started a counter-movement in favour of the Ilbert Bill when Europeans agitated against it. Besides, the Indian Association endeavoured to organise a united political group in India inspired by a common political ideal. These activities helped the growth of political consciousness among the Indian people and fostered political unity among the Indians. The Indian Association has been rightly called the forerunner of the Indian National Congress.
5. How did nationalism find expression in the ‘Anandamath’ of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay? What did Vivekananda say in his ‘Bartaman Bharat’?
Answer: Nationalism found significant expression in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s ‘Anandamath’. Written against the background of the Sannyasi Rebellion, the novel instilled the spirit of nationalism amongst Indians. It offers an illustration of the gospel of Hindu patriotism. The novel centres around the organization of the ‘santans’ (children of Mother India) who vow to tear asunder the bondage of foreign rule and take up arms against the aliens. The famous song ‘Bande Mataram’, featured in Anandamath, gave impetus to various patriotic and national activities. The song’s opening stanza appreciates the natural possessions adorning the Mother (India), raising the sacredness of the land to a religious level and combining patriotism with religious fervour. Anandamath became a ‘Bible’ for secret revolutionaries who modeled their societies on the organization founded by the novel’s hero, Satyananda. Bankim Chandra was seen as the seer of modern Indian nationalism, with ‘Bande Mataram’ as the mantra. The concept of ‘Bharatmata’ also emerges from Anandamath, which played a crucial role in national awareness.
In ‘Bartaman Bharat’, Swami Vivekananda expressed deep feelings on national, cultural, and political issues. He amplified ideas on society, discussing the governance by four castes (priests, soldiers, traders, labourers) and predicting an ideal future state where the positive aspects of each rule – knowledge, culture, distributive spirit, and equality – would be brought into harmony. ‘Bartaman Bharat’ ends with a call, titled ‘Swadesh Mantra’, urging Indians to give up imitating Western lifestyles, cherish self-respect, and take pride in being Indian. It is a call to arise and awake to the national ideal of identity with the Indian heritage. Vivekananda stressed that all Indian people, even the poorest and lowliest, should take pride in being born Indian. For him, patriotism and nationalism were tied to a spiritual belonging to one’s culture and history, making religion and nationalism interchangeable.
6. Very briefly describe the Revolt of 1857. What were the incidents relating to (i) Mangal Pandey (ii) Nana Sahib (iii) Tantia Tope and (iv) Kunwar sigh. What were the characteristics of the revolt ?
Answer: The Revolt of 1857 was a mighty uprising stemming from a century of decline and smouldering discontent among all classes due to oppressive British rule. It began with sepoy disobedience, notably at Meerut on 10 May 1857. Rebel sepoys marched to Delhi, captured it, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah II ‘Emperor of India’. The revolt spread across north India, including Oudh, Rohilkhand, Kanpur, Agra, Jhansi, and Gwalior. Delhi was recaptured by the British in September 1857, Bahadur Shah II was exiled, and British supremacy was re-established.
Incidents relating to:
(i) Mangal Pandey: On 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy, fired at a European officer. When others refused orders to arrest him, Pandey and those who disobeyed were arrested and hanged. This incident sparked the spread of the revolt.
(ii) Nana Sahib: At Kanpur, Nana Sahib led the rebel forces, advised by Tantia Tope. He eventually escaped into Nepal, and his fate remains unknown.
(iii) Tantia Tope: As Nana Sahib’s military adviser, Tantia Tope led troops at Kanpur. He later fought desperately in central India but was ultimately betrayed, captured, and executed.
(iv) Kunwar Singh: Kunwar Singh liberated parts of Bihar and aided rebels in Lucknow and Kanpur before dying from a fatal wound in Bihar.
The characteristics of the revolt were varied:
Sepoy actions were often followed or accompanied by rebellion in the city and countryside, with common people sometimes rising even before the sepoys, occasionally using ordinary weapons. Rebels burnt government records, much like they did with moneylenders’ account books. Despite British efforts to divide them, Hindus and Muslims fought shoulder to shoulder, as highlighted by the Azimgarh Proclamation stating both communities were being ruined by the ‘infidel and treacherous English’. The rebels displayed commendable courage and dedication, with thousands dying for their cause. In regions like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, peasants and artisans also rebelled against British rulers and their created zamindars.
7. Write briefly about the nature of the Revolt of 1857. Touch upon the attitude of the educated Bengali society towards 1857 Revolt. What was the impact of the Revolt of 1857 ?
Answer: The nature of the Revolt of 1857 is a contentious issue, debated since its occurrence. Opinions divide on whether it was a mere mutiny or a War of Independence. The old school of historians found it difficult to call it a War of Independence due to a lack of definite political ideal or co-ordinated plan. Nehru emphasized its feudal character. Modern historians argue that while starting with sepoys, it became a popular upsurge, not just a ‘feudal revolt’. Though common people’s participation wasn’t universal enough to term it a ‘national rising’ without qualification, Professor S. N. Sen called it a ‘national rising’, albeit limited, arguing full participation isn’t required. Professor R. C. Mazumder noted it began as a mutiny but ended as a civil outbreak in places. V. D. Savarkar termed it the ‘Indian War of Independence’, supported by Professor S. B. Chaudhuri who saw it as the ‘first combined attempt of many classes… to challenge a foreign power’.
The Bengali intelligentsia was apathetic to the Revolt of 1857, being conscious of their own interests. They opposed the rebellion, viewing the rebel sepoys (initially sparked by religious concerns in Barrackpore) as allies of social reaction, contrary to their stance against orthodoxy. Socio-economically, these intellectuals were products of the colonial structure (middle class, benefiting from trade, commerce, and English education) and feared a return to the old social order if the revolt succeeded. Sri Benoy Ghose added that their growing political consciousness led them to see no hope in the Revolt, hence they condemned the rebels.
The impact of the Revolt was significant for both Indians and the British. It exposed the dangers of company rule, leading the British Parliament to pass the Act for the Better Government of India (2 August 1858), transferring control from the East India Company to the British Crown. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1 November 1858) formalized the Crown’s direct responsibility, introduced the title of Viceroy (Lord Canning being the first), declared no further territorial expansion, and promised non-interference in Indian customs and religion. It also led to extensive reorganization of the army and civil administration, although the basic exploitative nature of British rule remained largely unchanged.
8. Write briefly about Land holders society and Indian Association or Bharat Sabha. Write about Hindu Mela. Write about expression of Nationalism in Literary works and paintings. Refer to Anandamath by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. Touch upto Bartaman Bharat by Swami Vivekananda. Refer to the ‘Bharat Mata Painting’ by Abanindranath Tagore. What did Gaganendranath Tagore do at this time?
Answer: The Landholders’ Society (Zamindary Association of Calcutta), formed in 1837 at Hindu College by figures like Radhakanta Deb, was the first association with a specific political outlook in India. Aiming to promote the general interest of landholders based on liberal principles, irrespective of caste or creed, it had a democratic constitution. Renamed Landholders’ Society in 1838, with Dwarakanath Tagore as a key figure, it gave people the first lesson in fighting logically and constitutionally. It fostered common ground between Indian landholders and Englishmen, broadened the political outlook of educated Indians, and cooperated with the British India Society in London.
The Indian Association (Bharat Sabha), founded by Surendranath Banerjee in 1876, marked a new chapter. Its objectives included creating strong public opinion, uniting Indians on a common political ideal, promoting Hindu-Muslim unity, and rallying the masses. With a low membership fee and leaders like Rev. Krishnamohan Bandyopadhyay (President) and Ananda Mohan Basu (Secretary), Surendranath Banerjee’s tours established it as a national body. It monitored administration, organised protests, fostered political consciousness and unity, and is considered the forerunner of the Indian National Congress.
The Hindu Mela, established by Nabagopal Mitra in 1867 (inspired by Rajnarayan Bose), aimed to foster self-help, build the Indian economy, and promote self-dependency. Annual fairs displayed Indian arts and crafts, encouraging native producers and developing national literature, song, and gymnastics. It drew figures like Sibnath Shastri into the movement and, by emphasizing indigenous products and self-help, paved the way for the national movement. Its religious tone was defended as reflecting the founders’ belief in unity based on Hindu religion.
Nationalism found expression through literary works and paintings, which were chief instruments for spreading patriotism and arousing national consciousness. Art was intertwined with the assertion of nationalism.
Anandamath by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee holds historic worth, instilling nationalism against the backdrop of the Sannyasi Rebellion. It illustrated Hindu patriotism, and its song Bandemataram spurred patriotic activity. The novel, depicting santans fighting foreign rule, combined patriotism with religious fervour and served as a Bible for revolutionaries. Bankim was the seer of modern Indian nationalism, and the concept of Bharatmata emerges from this work, playing a crucial role in national awareness.
Bartaman Bharat by Swami Vivekananda contains deep national, cultural, and political feelings. It discusses societal structure, predicts an ideal state, and calls for rejecting Western imitation, cherishing self-respect and pride in being Indian. Its closing Swadesh Mantra urges awakening to the national ideal. For Vivekananda, patriotism and nationalism were tied to spiritual belonging, making religion and nationalism interchangeable.
The ‘Bharat Mata Painting’ by Abanindranath Tagore (1905), originally Matrimurti, was an artistic visualization of the Swadeshi spirit. The four-armed goddess holding symbols of wisdom, sustenance, spirituality, and purity implied participation in the national struggle was a patriotic and religious duty. Evoking the Bande Mataram hymn, the painting depicts the Mother as bountiful and divine, an incarnation of the song. Abanindranath founded the Bengal School of Painting, addressing the cultural side of Swadeshi.
Gaganendranath Tagore, though brother to Abanindranath, remained independent of the Bengal school. He was noted for his marvellously original cartoons reflecting liberalism. His famous cartoon, ‘University Machine’, satirized the crippling effects of the education system with underlying sadness.
Extras
MCQs
1. What period saw 54 local uprisings before the major rebellion?
A. 1757-1857
B. 1707-1807
C. 1800-1900
D. 1600-1700
Answer: A. 1757-1857
62. Which group later became known as the Indian National Congress?
A. Indian Assoc.
B. Bombay Pres.
C. Nat’l Union
D. British India
Answer: C. Nat’l Union
Questions and Answers
1. In which year did the Sepoy Mutiny break out?
Answer: The Sepoy Mutiny broke out in the year 1857.
34. How did the image of “Bharat Mata” inspire feelings of nationalism among Indians?
Answer: A figure or image is frequently used to symbolise a nation’s identity. It’s a step toward concretizing the public’s mental picture of the country. The 20th century saw the rise of nationalism in India, and with it came the widespread association of the image of “Bharat Mata” with Indian identity. During India’s fight for independence, the image of Bharat Mata became a symbol that stoked feelings of nationalism. Artist Abanindranath Tagore is credited with creating the iconic “Bharat Mata” image. Bharat Mata is depicted in this artwork as a stoic, serene, divine, and spiritual figure. Sister Nivedita thought the depiction was enlightened and creative, describing how the mother goddess would have white hair, a halo, sincere eyes, four arms representing divine power, a white robe, and four lotuses at her feet. The Swadeshi movement had an impact on his image. The Hindu goddess “Bharat Mata” was depicted in “Anandamath” as a four-armed figure draped in saffron robes and carrying the Vedas, sheaves of rice, a “mala,” and a white cloth. Over the years, as the image of “Bharat Mata” spread in popular prints and was painted by various artists, it took on a wide variety of styles and variations.
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35. Mention Swami Vivekananda’s contribution to the growth of Indian nationalism briefly.
Answer: The greatest follower of Sri Ramkrishna, Swami Vivekananda, served as an unrivalled source of motivation for India’s freedom fighters. The Indian nationalists were motivated to be more courageous by his teachings. His teachings restored the Indians’ pride in their racial heritage. For the first time, the Indian intelligentsia realised they were on par with those in the West. The Indian nationalists were inspired by his spiritual call to “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached” and they continued a tenacious struggle for independence. He wrote numerous books, such as “Gyanjog,” “Karmajog,” and “Rajjog.” The “Bartaman Bharat” served as the revolutionaries and Swadeshis’ pioneers and guides. The police searched every home and discovered writings from Swami Vivekananda’s time in the revolutionary movement.
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