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Summary
The chapter discusses the development of composite culture in Medieval India, particularly focusing on the period of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. This culture, termed Indo-Islamic, emerged from the interactions between Turkish and Indian societies. The chapter identifies two phases of this cultural development: the Sultanate phase, marked by the initial fusion of Indian and Turkish traditions, and the Mughal phase, which saw the consolidation and expansion of this culture.
The chapter highlights several sources that provide insight into this composite culture. Bijak, a collection of verses by Kabir, reflects the influence of both Hindu and Muslim ideas and promotes harmony and equality among different communities. Kabir’s teachings denounce caste distinctions, idol worship, and empty rituals, advocating for a direct, sincere devotion to one God.
Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs, compiled by Guru Arjan Dev, includes hymns from Sikh Gurus and other saints, showcasing the unity of all religions. Guru Nanak’s teachings emphasized the oneness of God, the rejection of ritualism, and the importance of living an honest life.
The chapter also describes Ajmer Sharif, the dargah of Sufi saint Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti, a site revered by people of all faiths, reflecting the inclusive nature of Sufism. Sufi practices stressed love, devotion, and the unity of all beings, contributing to the syncretic culture of the period.
St. Francis Church in Kochi, the oldest European church in India, symbolizes the early influence of Christianity in India, brought by missionaries like St. Francis Xavier, who played a significant role in spreading Christianity and introducing European art, literature, and architecture to India.
The chapter concludes by discussing the impact of this composite culture, which influenced various aspects of life, including art, architecture, music, and literature. The Indo-Islamic culture led to the development of new art forms, architectural styles, and languages like Urdu, which combined elements of Persian, Arabic, and Indian languages. The Bhakti and Sufi movements further strengthened this culture by promoting religious tolerance, equality, and devotion over ritualism.
Textbook (Total History) solutions
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which of the following are the sections of Bijak, the seed book?
A. Sakhi, Smriti and Ramaini
B. Sakhi, Ramaini and Shabda
C. Ramaini, Stuti and Smriti
D. Shabda, Tawarikh and Chaugan
Answer: B. Sakhi, Ramaini and Shabda
2. Ajmer Sharief is the holy shrine of which sufi saint?
A. Ali Moinuddin Chishti
B. Khwajah Khan Aulia
C. Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti
D. Ali Shah Shukrawadi
Answer: C. Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti
3. Name the oldest European Church in India.
A. St. Francis Church
B. St. Vasco Church
C. St. Francisco Church
D. St. Anglico Church
Answer: A. St. Francis Church
4. Which language was originally known as ‘Zaban-e-Hindvi’?
A. Hindi
B. Urdu
C. Sanskrit
D. Persian
Answer: B. Urdu
5. Which of the following are the doctrines of the Bhakti cult?
A. God is one
B. Bhakti leads to salvation
C. All are equal before God
D. All of the above
Answer: D. All of the above
6. The Rajasthani princess Mirabai’s poetry in the form of devotional songs to Lord Krishna is known as:
A. Krishna Bhajans
B. Bhaktigeet
C. Padavali
D. Mirageet
Answer: C. Padavali
7. Sant Jnaneswar’s commentary on the Bhagvad Gita is called:
A. Jnaneswari
B. Bhavartha Dipika
C. Padavali
D. Mirageet
Answer: B. Bhavartha Dipika
8. Which sufi saint believed in drawing close to God through renunciation of the world and service to humanity?
A. Hazrat Ali
B. Hazrat Shan
C. Hazrat Khan
D. Hazrat Nizamuddin
Answer: D. Hazrat Nizamuddin
Select the correct relationship
1. (A) The Indo-Islamic culture influenced all aspects of life such as culture, art, architecture, and literature.
(B) The interaction of the Turks with the Indians led to the development of a new composite culture, called Indo-Islamic culture.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: B. (B) is the reason for (A)
Explanation: The statement (B) explains how the interaction between the Turks and Indians led to the formation of the Indo-Islamic culture. This newly developed culture, in turn, influenced various aspects of life, as mentioned in statement (A). Therefore, the interaction between these two groups was the foundational reason behind the cultural influence described.
2. (A) Kabir was born of a Brahmin widow and brought up by a Muslim weaver, Neeru, and his wife Neema.
(B) Bijak is the compilation of the verses of Kabir, which show his acquaintance with both Hindu and Muslim religious and philosophical ideas.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: B. (B) is the reason for (A)
Explanation: Statement (B) indicates that Kabir’s verses, compiled in the Bijak, reflect his knowledge of both Hindu and Muslim philosophies. This is a direct result of his upbringing, as mentioned in statement (A), where he was exposed to both religious traditions. The compilation of his verses in the Bijak is therefore a reflection of the diverse religious background he experienced.
3. (A) Guru Granth Sahib contains the hymns, songs, and utterances of a wide variety of saints, sages, and bards.
(B) It affirms the fundamental unity of all religions and the unitary character of all mystic experiences.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: B. (B) is the reason for (A)
Explanation: The Guru Granth Sahib, as stated in (A), is a compilation of hymns and teachings from various religious figures. The reason behind this compilation, as described in (B), is to emphasize the unity of all religions and the shared nature of mystic experiences, which the Guru Granth Sahib seeks to highlight.
4. (A) The dargah or shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is located in New Delhi.
(B) The dargah is revered not only by Muslims but also by people of other faiths.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: C. (A) is true but (B) is false
Explanation: Statement (A) is incorrect because the dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is actually located in Ajmer, not New Delhi. However, statement (B) is true in that the dargah is revered by people of various faiths. The statements are thus independent, with (A) being false and (B) being true.
5. (A) The Turks brought with them a number of new musical instruments like the rabab and sarangi.
(B) The fusion of Indian and Islamic cultures is best seen in the field of music.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: B. (B) is the reason for (A)
Explanation: Statement (B) explains why the introduction of new musical instruments by the Turks, as stated in (A), was significant. The fusion of Indian and Islamic cultures was especially evident in the field of music, which is why the Turks’ contributions were notable. Therefore, (B) is the reason for (A).
6. (A) Bhakti movement originated in India as a reaction against caste divisions and ritualism.
(B) Bhakti saints preached personal devotion to God as a means to reach God.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: B. (B) is the reason for (A)
Explanation: The Bhakti movement, as mentioned in (A), arose as a response to the rigid caste system and ritualism in India. Statement (B) explains that the Bhakti saints’ emphasis on personal devotion to God, rather than on caste or rituals, was the driving force behind this movement. Therefore, (B) is the reason for (A).
7. (A) The Bhakti movement brought in significant social changes in society.
(B) The Bhakti saints tried to evolve a new social order based on equality and devoid of caste distinctions.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: B. (B) is the reason for (A)
Explanation: The Bhakti movement, as described in (A), led to important social changes in India. This was largely because Bhakti saints, as noted in (B), advocated for a society where equality prevailed and caste distinctions were eliminated. Thus, the efforts of these saints were the reason for the social changes that occurred, making (B) the reason for (A).
8. (A) Mirabai was the princess of Mewar who was married to Bhoja Raja.
(B) Jnaneswar was a Bhakti saint, poet, and philosopher from Maharashtra.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: D. (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Explanation: Statements (A) and (B) refer to two different historical figures with no direct connection between them. Mirabai and Jnaneswar were both influential in the Bhakti movement, but their lives and contributions were independent of each other. Therefore, (A) and (B) are unrelated statements.
9. (A) The Sufi saints, who settled in India, belonged to Chishti and Suhrawardi orders.
(B) The Sufi saints believed in the fundamental unity of all religions.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: D. (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Explanation: Statement (A) discusses the specific orders (Chishti and Suhrawardi) to which the Sufi saints belonged. Statement (B) discusses their belief in the unity of all religions. These two statements, while both describing aspects of Sufism, do not have a cause-and-effect relationship or contradict each other. Therefore, (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
10. (A) St. Francis Xavier was born in the castle of Xavier in Spain.
(B) St. Francis Xavier worked relentlessly for ten years in India and preached the essentials of Christianity.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: D. (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Explanation: Statement (A) describes the birthplace of St. Francis Xavier, while statement (B) describes his work in India. These two statements are both true but unrelated to each other in a direct cause-and-effect manner. Therefore, (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Short Answer Questions
1. What is meant by the term composite culture?
Answer: Composite culture refers to the fusion of different cultural traditions, customs, and practices that result from the interaction of diverse groups. In the context of medieval India, it specifically refers to the blending of Indian and Islamic elements, which gave rise to a new, unified culture that was neither purely Indian nor entirely Islamic.
2. Mention any two factors which promoted composite culture during the Mughal Age.
Answer:
- The immense wealth and unlimited power in the hands of the Mughal emperors enabled them to continue their patronage of fine arts and literature.
- The relatively settled conditions and a long period of peace that prevailed all over northern India paved the way for undertaking extensive works of art.
3. What is Bijak? Name any two sections into which Bijak is divided.
Answer: Bijak is the compilation of the verses of Kabir, a prominent Bhakti saint. It is preserved by the Kabirpanthis in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh. Bijak is divided into three main sections: Sakhi, Ramaini, and Shabda.
4. Enumerate any two teachings of Kabir, according to the Bijak.
Answer:
- There is only one God, and He may be worshipped under many names.
- All men are equal before God, and there are no caste distinctions and no supremacy of the priestly class.
5. Who compiled Guru Granth Sahib? Why is it called the living Guru?
Answer: The Guru Granth Sahib was compiled by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev. It is called the living Guru because Sikhs regard it as a spiritual guide not only for them but for the entire humanity, believing that it contains all the answers regarding religion and morality.
6. Which Sufi Saint’s tomb is enshrined in the Ajmer Sharief Dargah? What was his main belief?
Answer: The Sufi saint Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti’s tomb is enshrined in the Ajmer Sharief Dargah. His main belief was promoting religious tolerance, brotherhood, and the oneness of God.
7. Mention any two doctrines of the Bhakti cult.
Answer:
- God is one and must be worshipped with love and devotion.
- By following the path of true devotion (or Bhakti), one can find salvation. Blind faith, empty ceremonies, and external rites are not to be followed(10).
8. What is meant by Sufism? Name one Sufi saint.
Answer: Sufism is a movement preaching religious tolerance, brotherhood, and the oneness of God, believing that all religions are different paths to reaching the same God. One Sufi saint is Hazrat Nizamuddin.
9. Mention any two doctrines of Sufism.
Answer:
- Fundamental unity of all religions.
- One can reach God through personal devotion and not through empty rituals
10. Write a short note on the life of St. Francis Xavier.
Answer: St. Francis Xavier was born on April 7, 1506, in the castle of Xavier in Spain. After completing his studies and working as a teacher for some time, he displayed zeal and charity in attending to the sick in hospitals. In 1537, he became a priest. In 1541, he started his missionary journey towards India and landed at Goa in 1542. He spent the first five months preaching and attending to the sick in hospitals. During the six years he worked in India, other Jesuit missionaries arrived in Goa, and in 1548, he sent these missionaries to the principal centers of India, where he had established missions. St. Francis Xavier worked relentlessly for ten years in India and preached the essentials of Christianity. He died on December 2, 1552, while on a voyage to China. His mortal remains were brought back to Goa the following year, where his body is still enshrined in the Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa.
Structured Questions
1. With reference to the sources of composite culture in India, state the significance of the following:
(a) Bijak
Answer: Bijak (the seed book) is the compilation of the verses of Kabir. Kabir was a disciple of the Bhakti saint Ramananda. Bijak comprises three main sections called Sakhi, Ramaini and Shabda, and a fourth section containing miscellaneous folk song forms.
(b) Guru Granth Sahib
Answer: The fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, compiled Guru Nanak Dev’s hymns along with those of his four successors and other religious preachers like Baba Farid, Ravidas, and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib in Amritsar, Punjab. Guru Granth Sahib is considered by the Sikhs as a spiritual guide not only for them but for the entire humanity. They regard it as a ‘Living Guru’ that has all the answers regarding religion and morality.
(c) Ajmer Sharief
Answer: Ajmer Sharief is the holy shrine of the sufi saint, Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti, located at Ajmer in Rajasthan. The dargah of Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti is one of the most revered sites in India not only for the Muslims but also for the people of other faiths, who hold the saint in high esteem. Every year thousands of people visit Ajmer Sharief to pay reverence at the sanctified dargah. A yearly carnival, known as Urs, is held for six days in the honour of the beloved saint.
2. Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. With reference to Sufism, write short notes on the following:
(a) Devotion to God
Answer: Sufism preached that one can reach God through personal devotion and not through empty rituals. The Sufi saints emphasised love and devotion to God as the primary path to spiritual fulfillment.
(b) Caste distinctions
Answer: Sufism advocated the equality and brotherhood of all human beings irrespective of caste, colour, creed, and religion. The Sufi saints rejected the caste system and preached the message of unity and equality among all people.
(c) Unity of all religions
Answer: Sufism taught the fundamental unity of all religions. The Sufi saints believed that all religions were different paths leading to the same God, and they promoted religious tolerance and mutual respect among different faiths.
3. Summarise the impact of the Bhakti movement with regard to:
(a) Equality of all human beings
Answer: The Bhakti movement preached universal brotherhood and emphasised the equality of all men. The Bhakti saints denounced the caste system and stressed that all individuals were equal in the eyes of God.
(b) Fostering unity and harmony between different communities
Answer: The Bhakti movement played a significant role in fostering unity and harmony between different communities by promoting the idea of a personal relationship with God, which transcended caste, creed, and religious boundaries. The teachings of Bhakti saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak helped bring about social reform and reduce religious divisions.
(c) Promoting regional languages and devotional literature
Answer: The Bhakti movement popularised regional languages such as Hindi, Bhojpuri, Maithili, and Oriya. The saints composed their devotional songs and teachings in the local languages, making them accessible to the common people. This led to a rich body of devotional literature that played a key role in the cultural and linguistic development of the regions.
4. With reference to the influence of Christianity during the Mughal period, answer the following questions:
(a) Explain the role played by St. Francis Xavier in spreading Christianity in India.
Answer: St. Francis Xavier was a Jesuit missionary who arrived in India in 1542. He worked relentlessly for ten years in India, preaching the essentials of Christianity and establishing missions in various parts of the country. St. Francis Xavier played a crucial role in spreading Christianity in India by engaging with the local population, teaching Christian doctrines, and establishing a lasting Christian presence in the country.
(b) How did the missionaries bring Europeans closer to Indians?
Answer: The missionaries brought Europeans closer to Indians by learning local languages and understanding Indian culture. They brought out grammars and dictionaries of Indian languages to facilitate communication. Through their educational and religious activities, they established a cultural bridge between Europeans and Indians.
(c) Explain the role of Christian missionaries in promoting language, literature, and art in India.
Answer: The Christian missionaries played a significant role in promoting language, literature, and art in India. They introduced Western music, taught dance and instrumental music, and promoted the arts of painting, carving, and sculpture. The missionaries also contributed to the development of regional languages by writing grammar books and religious literature in local languages. Their work in these areas left a lasting impact on Indian culture and education.
5. With reference to the pictures given on the right, answer the following questions:
(a) Name the Bhakti Saints given in the pictures. Where were they born?
Answer: The Bhakti saints given in the pictures are Kabir and Guru Nanak. Kabir was born in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, and Guru Nanak was born in Nankana Sahib, which is in present-day Pakistan.
(b) How did the Sufi and the Bhakti movements foster the growth of Indo-Islamic culture?
Answer: The Sufi and Bhakti movements fostered the growth of Indo-Islamic culture by emphasising the unity and commonalities between Hinduism and Islam. Both movements focused on love, devotion, and personal experience of God, which transcended religious boundaries. They promoted mutual respect and understanding between followers of different faiths, leading to a blending of cultural and religious practices that contributed to the development of a composite Indo-Islamic culture.
(c) Mention any two teachings of each of these two saints.
Answer: Teachings of Kabir:
- There is only one God. He may be worshipped under many names.
- All men are equal before God. There are no caste distinctions and no supremacy of the priestly class.
Teachings of Guru Nanak:
- Guru Nanak preached the unity of God and the unity of mankind.
- He condemned idolatry in all its forms and emphasised devotion to God in place of ritualism.
Thinking Skills
1. How did the teachings of Kabir and Guru Nanak promote the feelings of peace and harmony among different communities and thereby, strengthened the composite culture of India?
Answer: The teachings of Kabir and Guru Nanak emphasized the unity of God and the equality of all human beings, regardless of caste, creed, or religion. They denounced ritualism and advocated for devotion to God as the true means to attain salvation. By preaching the oneness of God and rejecting caste distinctions, they promoted peace and harmony among different communities. Their teachings fostered a spirit of mutual respect and tolerance, which contributed to the strengthening of the composite culture of India.
2. Suppose you have recently shifted to a big housing colony where people belonging to different regions professing different religions, cultures and views live. As the Secretary of the Students Wing of the RWA of your society, which measures you would initiate to strengthen the composite culture of India?
Answer: I would initiate measures like organizing cultural exchange programs where residents can showcase their regional traditions, festivals, and cuisines. I would also encourage inter-faith dialogue sessions and community service activities that bring people together. Additionally, I would promote the celebration of national festivals with enthusiasm and inclusivity, ensuring that everyone feels a part of the community. By fostering a spirit of unity in diversity, I would work towards strengthening the composite culture of India.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. What marked the beginning of the Indo-Islamic culture in India?
A. Arrival of the Portuguese
B. Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
C. Construction of the Taj Mahal
D. Advent of the British East India Company
Answer: B. Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
41. What year did St. Francis Xavier send missionaries to the principal centers of India?
A. 1542
B. 1548
C. 1552
D. 1537
Answer: B. 1548
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What is the Bijak?
Answer: The Bijak is a compilation of the verses of Kabir.
54. How did Christian missionaries influence music and architecture in India?
Answer: Christian missionaries significantly influenced both music and architecture in India. They introduced Western music in church schools, teaching not just vocal hymns but also instrumental music. Churches often had music schools where hymns were sung, accompanied by organs and other instruments. In architecture, the Portuguese Church introduced European styles to India. This included the design of long, two-storeyed houses with high-pitched roofs, balconies, verandas, and elaborately carved walls. These architectural elements marked the earliest introduction of European architectural ideas to India, blending with local styles and influencing the development of Indian architecture.
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