Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, extra MCQs, PDF for Chapter 9 Memory and Forgetting: NBSE Class 12 Education, which is part of the syllabus for students studying under NBSE (Nagaland Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
Summary
Memory is our mind’s ability to hold on to information and experiences. It allows us to remember our friends, family, and things that happened long ago. This gives us a sense of connection between our past and present. Memory involves four main steps. The first is learning or registering new information. The second is retention, which is storing that information. The third is recall, which means bringing the information back to mind. The fourth is recognition, which is identifying something when you see it again.
There are different ways to learn and remember things. Learning with breaks in between is often more effective than trying to learn everything at once. We can also use special tricks to help us remember, such as making a word from the first letter of each item in a list. When we learn something, it creates a ‘memory trace’ in our brain. This is like making a footprint in the sand. A deep footprint will last a long time, just as a strong memory does. A weak footprint will fade away, just like a weak memory. We can measure how well we have retained something by trying to recall it, recognize it, or see how quickly we can relearn it.
Information moves through different stages in our memory. First, it enters our sensory memory for just a fraction of a second. If we pay attention to it, the information moves to our short-term memory. This holds a small amount of information for about thirty seconds. It is like a temporary notepad for things like a phone number you are about to use. If we keep rehearsing or thinking about the information, it can be moved to our long-term memory. This is a vast storage space for information that we can keep for years, like facts we learned in school or memories of special events.
Forgetting is a normal process and is the opposite of remembering. Sometimes we forget because the memory trace, or the ‘footprint’, fades away over time if we do not use the memory. This is called decay. We also forget because of interference, which is when other memories get in the way of the one we are trying to recall. For example, learning a new song might make it hard to remember the words to an old one. People may also forget unpleasant or painful experiences because they do not wish to remember them. Other things like poor health, strong emotions, or being in a completely different environment can also make it difficult to remember.
Textual
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Expand the terms: (a) LTM (b) STM
Answer: (a) LTM stands for Long-Term Memory.
(b) STM stands for Short-Term Memory.
2. What is recall?
Answer: Recall is the third factor of memory. It means the presentation of any past experience in the form of an image or language in the conscious level of the mind. It involves the association of ideas.
3. What is memory?
Answer: According to Woodworth and Marquis, memory is mental power which consists of learning, retaining, and remembering what has previously been learnt. It is the special ability of our mind to store what we learn to recollect and reproduce it after some time, and is a complex process involving learning, retention, recall, and recognition.
4. List the different stages of memory.
Answer: According to the most acceptable model of memory, there are three major systems or stages of memory:
- Sensory Memory
- Short-Term Memory (STM)
- Long-Term Memory (LTM)
5. Define forgetting.
Answer: According to Munn, forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary, of the ability to recall or recognise something learned earlier.
6. State any two causes of forgetting.
Answer: Two causes of forgetting are:
- Emotions: A rise in emotions like fear, anger, or love can lead to forgetting learned experiences. For example, a student who is afraid of a teacher may forget what has been learnt.
- Poor Health: This prevents us from remembering the learnt material.
Short Answer Questions
1. How can forgetting be minimised?
Answer: Forgetting can be minimised by reducing interference. Since interference is a major cause of forgetting, one should try to reduce it as much as possible. Generally, the more similar the materials to be learned, the more likely they will produce interference. Thus, one should arrange studies so that similar subjects are not studied one right after the other. For example, if two languages have to be studied, they should be studied on different days.
Forgetting can also be minimised through distributed practice, which means learning material with a gap between trials and taking rest after a period of study. Instead of cramming all information at once, if a chapter is lengthy, it should be divided into parts and learned one part at a time.
Finally, repetition and continuous practice add to the effectiveness of memorisation. Intelligent repetition with full understanding helps in making learning effective and enduring, and things that are repeated and practiced frequently are remembered for a long time.
2. Discuss different types of memory with examples.
Answer: The different types of memory are:
Immediate Memory: This is also known as short-term memory. It is when an individual has to reproduce something immediately after learning it, so the time span is very less for the matter to be registered in the consciousness. The learned matter is forgotten rapidly. For example, we may first look at the seat number of our ticket, and once we sit down, we forget about it. In this type of memory, the retention time is very brief.
Short-term memory: This type is also called temporary memory and is not as short-lived as immediate memory. The information temporarily stored in short-term memory may last as long as thirty seconds even if the material is not being rehearsed. Some people can retain more information in short-term memories through a process called chunking, which groups information by coding it. For example, the number 143254376 can be remembered by listing it under three heads: 143, 254, 376.
Long-term memory: This is also known as permanent memory. Here, the individual learns and retains information for a very long period. There is an interval of time between learning and recall or reproduction. Permanent memory is involved in, for example, knowing our bank account number or phone number.
3. Explain the components of memory.
Answer: Memory is a mental ability that involves four different factors or processes. These components are:
Registration or Learning: This is the first factor in the process of memory. Learning is the acquisition of new information or experiences, which leads to the establishment of an association of ideas in the mind. This factor is the way to register the first impression of an object or idea, without which memorisation cannot take place.
Retention: This is the stage that follows learning, making the learning permanent. Retention is the inactive state of learned activity. The learning activity leaves a mark on the brain structure called a ‘Memory Trace’, which is imprinted on the Cerebral Cortex. This preservation of the memory trace is the retaining of the learning activity.
Recall: This is the third factor of memory. It means the presentation of any past experience in the form of an image or language in the conscious level of the mind. It involves the association of ideas.
Recognition: This is the fourth factor of memory. It is the capacity to be aware of a previous experience. If a person can identify an ‘object or idea’ at present of which he or she has a past experience, it is called ‘recognition’.
4. Enumerate with examples, the different ways in the process of memorising.
Answer: The different ways in the process of memorising are:
(a) Rote Memorisation: This is learning without understanding. Meaningful material is more easily learned than nonsense material. For example, it is easier to learn poetry than prose, and prose is easier to learn than disconnected words.
(b) Spaced v/s Mass Learning: In spaced learning, the learner is allowed rest during memorisation, following the principle of ‘work and rest’. In mass learning, the subject memorises the material in one sitting without any interval until it is mastered.
(c) Whole v/s Part Method of Learning: In the whole method, a poem, for example, is read again and again from start to finish. In the part method, the poem is broken down into parts or stanzas and then learned, which benefits slow learners and average students.
(d) Recitation: This is a method where the student reads a lesson a few times and then reviews it without the book by reciting the material learned. This helps in achieving permanent retention.
(e) Mnemonic devices: These are artificial associations made to associate ideas or material. For example, grouping helps to memorise easily. Memory improved by using artificial associates is called Mnemonics.
5. List two main differences between short term and long term memory.
Answer: Two main differences between short-term and long-term memory are:
The first difference is the duration of retention. Short-term memory holds information for brief periods, usually 30 seconds or less, and the information may last only as long as thirty seconds if not rehearsed. In contrast, long-term memory is for the retention of information for longer periods of time, allowing us to remember events that happened many years ago.
The second difference is the amount of information held. Short-term memory holds relatively small amounts of information. Long-term memory, on the other hand, is the memory system for the retention of large amounts of information.
6. What are the causes of forgetting?
Answer: The causes of forgetting are:
- Faulty Memory Process: Sometimes, we encode only a portion of information as a gist, not the actual words or details. The constructive process during encoding can distort what is stored, and we remember these distortions. Our memory does not match the events as they actually occurred.
- Interference: An important cause of forgetting is the interference of learned material. There are two kinds: proactive inhibition, where earlier learning interferes with later learning, and retroactive inhibition, where later learning inhibits the recall of earlier learning.
- Retrieval Problems: Retrieval is necessary for recall. Without appropriate retrieval cues or remainders to direct the memory search to the right part of the long-term memory, the sought-for items may not be found, leading to forgetting.
- Motivated Forgetting: This is a kind of forgetting where an individual intentionally forgets. The information is stored but the individual does not want those memories and represses them. Generally, people remember pleasant experiences more than unpleasant ones.
- Amnesia: This refers to a loss of memory and is a kind of memory disorder. It can be psychological, caused by disturbances in encoding, storage, and retrieval, or biological, caused by abnormal functioning of the brain due to injury, drugs, or disease.
Long Answer Questions
1. Differentiate between recall and recognition.
Answer: Recall and recognition are two different factors of memory.
Recall is the third factor of memory and is a direct method of testing retention. It means the presentation of any past experience in the form of an image or language in the conscious level of the mind. Recall finds the object from the mind and depends on the mental condition and the memory trace formed. It is considered an active process. However, sometimes we are not able to recall, even when we know the matter, so this is the poorest retention score of all that is learnt.
Recognition is the fourth factor of memory and is the capacity to be aware of a previous experience. It means familiarity with something, or the ability to judge whether something is identical with a perceived experience on an earlier occasion. Recognition starts with the object given, whereas recall finds the object from the mind. It is easier to recognise than to recall, and recognition is better than recall as an index of retention. Recognition is more of a passive behaviour than an active process like recall.
2. What are the factors which are responsible for influencing one’s memory?
Answer: There are four different factors or processes in memory which are responsible for influencing it. They are:
Registration or Learning: This is the first factor of the process of memory. It is the acquisition of new information of experiences which leads to the establishment of the association of ideas in mind. This factor is the way to register the first impression of an object or idea without which memorisation cannot take place. Before remembering, it must be registered or learnt.
- Retention: The process of learning involves the stage of retention, thus learning becomes permanent. Retention is the inactive state of learnt activity. The learning activity leaves a mark on the brain structure called a ‘Memory Trace’. This preservation of the memory trace in the brain is the retaining of the learning activity.
- Recall: The third factor of memory is recall. It means the presentation of any past experience in the form of an image or language in the conscious level of the mind. It involves the association of ideas.
- Recognition: Recognition is the fourth factor of memory. It is the capacity to be aware of a previous experience. If a person can identify an ‘object or idea’ at present of which he/she has a past experience, it is called ‘recognition’.
3. Suggest some steps to improve memory. Could it be sharpened? Justify.
Answer: Yes, memory can be improved. It is possible with little effort and almost anyone can improve his or her memory.
Memory consists of four factors: Registration or Learning, Retention, Recall, and Recognition. Improvement in any one or more of these constituents is likely to improve the memory as a whole. Out of these four, learning and recall can be improved by training. Actually, improvement in memory demands the necessary improvement in the techniques and methods of learning, the learning situation and environment, and the learners’ state of mind.
Some tips and techniques to enhance one’s memory are:
- Intention to Learn: Firm determination or strong will to learn is required to achieve success. Materials read, heard, or seen without intention or mood are difficult to be remembered at later times.
- Deep Processing: To learn something and enter information into long-term memory, you have to think about it. You need to consider its meaning and examine its relationship to information you already have. The retention of material is dependent directly upon the depth at which it has been processed.
- Interest and attention: To learn something well and ensure its retention in long-term memory you have to put in conscious effort to attend to it carefully. A person who has no interest in what he learns will not give due attention to it and consequently will not be able to learn it.
- Minimise interference: You should try to reduce interference as much as possible. You should arrange your studies so that you don’t study similar subjects one right after the other. For example, if you have to study two languages, study them on different days.
- Distributed practice: While learning some material it is beneficial to learn it using distributed practice in which there is a gap between trials. If a chapter is lengthy, divide it into two or three parts and learn a part in one go. Do not try to cram all the information you want to memorise at once.
- Using memory aids: People use various cues, indicators and signs to connect events. You can use visual imagery to remember objects and places. For example, you may remember a location by remembering several associated objects and places.
- Shorthand codes: You can develop your own shorthand codes to memorise long lists of items. You can use the first letter of each word or item and construct a unique “word”. For example, to remember the seven constituents of light we use VIBGYOR.
- Meaningfulness: If the subject matter taught to students is meaningful and it has been presented to them in an organised manner, it will be retained for a longer period of time.
- Grouping and rhythm: Grouping and rhythm also help and facilitate learning and help in remembering. For example, a telephone number is learnt well when digits are grouped.
- Repetition and recitation: Repetition and continuous practice add to the effectiveness of memorisation. Intelligent repetition with full understanding always helps in making learning effective and enduring.
- Internal factors within the learner: His/her physical and mental health and state of mind at the time of learning as well as reproduction counts a lot to memory. Due attention should be given to the improvement of the student’s health—physical as well as mental.
- Making use of SQ4R Techniques: This strategy for effective learning and memorisation involves Survey, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite and Recall, and Review.
4. What are the different ways to minimise forgetting?
Answer: Forgetting can be minimised by adopting certain strategies that improve learning and retention. The different ways to minimise forgetting are:
- Minimise interference: Interference is a major cause of forgetting. To reduce it, you should arrange your studies so that you don’t study similar subjects one right after the other. For example, if you have to study two languages, study them on different days.
- Deep Processing: The retention of material depends on the depth at which it has been processed. To minimise forgetting, you should think about the information, consider its meaning, and relate it to existing knowledge. Greater rehearsal also reduces the chances of forgetting.
- Ensure Interest and Attention: A person who has no interest in what he learns will not give due attention to it and will forget it. Therefore, to minimise forgetting, one must put in a conscious effort to attend to the material carefully.
- Use Distributed Practice: Instead of cramming information all at once, it is beneficial to learn it using distributed practice, with gaps between trials. Taking rest after a period of study and dividing lengthy chapters into parts helps in better retention and minimises forgetting.
- Engage in Repetition and Recitation: Repetition and continuous practice add to the effectiveness of memorisation. Things repeated and practiced frequently are remembered for a long time, thus minimising forgetting. Self-recitation is better and more time-saving than just reading and rereading because permanent retention is achieved.
- Maintain Good Internal Factors: A learner’s physical and mental health and state of mind affect memory. To minimise forgetting, attention should be given to improving one’s health. A fresh mind is able to learn more and retain it for a longer time than a tired and dull one.
5. Discuss the causes related to storage failure for forgetfulness.
Answer: Storage failure, where information that has been stored in memory is lost, is a key reason for forgetfulness. The causes related to this failure include:
- Theory of Decay: This theory suggests that forgetting is a process of the fading of learnt matter with the passage of time. Vivid impressions or memory traces created in the cerebral cortex fade away as time passes. This decay could be a result of the normal metabolic processes of the brain, which might cause the traces of material once learned to disintegrate gradually and eventually disappear altogether. This is also known as the Trace Decay Theory, which states that if learnt processes are not used for a long time, the traces get faded.
- Interference of Association: According to this theory, forgetting is caused by the influence of intervening activities. When more and more memory traces are formed, some overlapping of traces can take place, resulting in obliteration and interference. This means one learning will interfere with or inhibit the memory process of another, leading to a failure to maintain the original stored information.
- Amnesia: Amnesia refers to a loss of memory and occurs from a loss of what has already been stored. Biological amnesia is a type of storage failure caused by abnormal functioning of the brain. This abnormality may be due to causes such as a blow on the head, temporary disturbances in blood supply to the brain, certain drugs, brain diseases like Arteriosclerosis and Alzheimer’s disease, and chronic alcoholism. These problems can result in a profound memory loss, indicating a failure of the storage system.
- Faulty Memory Process: Sometimes, distortions occur during the process of encoding information. A constructive process at work during encoding distorts what is stored in memory. In this case, what is stored is not an accurate representation of what really happened. This is a failure related to storage because the information itself is stored incorrectly from the beginning.
Additional
Extra Questions and Answers
1. How does Stout define memory?
Answer: Memory is the ideal revival so far as ideal revival is merely reproductive. This productive aspect of ideal revival requires the object of past experiences to be re-instated as far as possible in the order and manner of their original occurrence.
2. How does James Drever define memory?
Answer: Memory is that characteristic which underlines all learning, the essential feature of which is reflection. In a narrow sense it is recall and recognition.
3. How do Woodworth and Marquis define memory?
Answer: Memory is mental power which consists of learning, retaining, and remembering what has previously been learnt.
4. How does Ryburn define memory?
Answer: The power that we have to store our experiences, and to bring them into the field of our consciousness sometimes after the experiences have occurred, is termed as memory.
5. How does Guilford define memory?
Answer: Memory is the retention or storage of information in any form.
84. Discuss in detail the processes and factors involved in memory.
Answer: Memory is the special ability of our mind to store what we learn to recollect and reproduce it after some time. It is crucial in our life because it helps build bridges in the flow of experiences and allows us to have a sense of continuity. Several experts have defined memory.
- Stout: “Memory is the ideal revival so far as ideal revival is merely reproductive. This productive aspect of ideal revival requires the object of past experiences to be re-instated as far as possible in the order and manner of their original occurrence”.
- James Drever: “Memory is that characteristic which underlines all learning, the essential feature of which is reflection. In a narrow sense it is recall and recognition”.
- Woodworth and Marquis: “Memory is mental power which consists of learning, retaining, and remembering what has previously been learnt”.
- Ryburn: “The power that we have to store our experiences, and to bring them into the field of our consciousness sometimes after the experiences have occurred, it is termed as memory”.
- Guilford: “Memory is the retention or storage of information in any form”.
- F’iedsetal: “Memory is the ability to retain and reproduce impressions once perceived”.
Memory is a mental ability in which different types of processes are involved. There are four different factors or processes in memory:
- Registration or Learning: This is the first factor of the process of memory. Learning is the acquisition of new information or experiences which leads to the establishment of the association of ideas in mind. This factor is the way to register the first impression of an object or idea, without which memorisation cannot take place.
- Retention: The process of learning involves the stage of retention, thus learning becomes permanent. Retention is the inactive state of learnt activity. The learning activity leaves a mark on the brain structure, called a ‘Memory Trace’, which is imprinted on the Cerebral Cortex. This preservation of the memory trace is the retaining of the learning activity. The deeper the trace, the longer the retention. Retention can be measured through recall, recognition, and relearning.
- Recall: The third factor of memory is recall. It means the presentation of any past experience in the form of an image or language in the conscious level of the mind. It involves the association of ideas. Recall depends on the mental condition and the memory trace formed.
- Recognition: Recognition is the fourth factor of memory. It is the capacity to be aware of a previous experience. If a person can identify an ‘object or idea’ at present of which he or she has a past experience, it is called ‘recognition’. It is easier to recognise than to recall.
There are different types of memory that individuals possess. Some important types are:
- Immediate Memory: This is also known as short-term memory. This memory is when the individual has to reproduce immediately after learning something. The time span is very less for the matter to be registered in the consciousness, and the learnt matter is forgotten rapidly. The retention time is very brief.
- Short-term memory: This type of memory is also called temporary memory. It is not as short-lived as immediate memory. The information temporarily stored may last as long as thirty seconds even if the material is not being rehearsed. Some people can retain more information through a process called chunking, which groups information by coding it.
- Long-term memory: This is also known as permanent memory. Here the individual learns and retains the information for a very long period of time. There is an interval of time between learning and recall or reproduction.
Memory is not a single or unitary system; it has more than one distinct system. According to the most acceptable model, there are three major systems or stages of memory: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM).
- Sensory Memory: This stage holds representations of sensory input for very brief periods, depending on the modality involved. A clear visual image of any object will last in sensory memory for about half a second after the stimulus is removed.
- Short-Term Memory (STM): This is the first stage where information moves if attention is given. It holds relatively small amounts of information for brief periods, usually 30 seconds or less. This system is also called “working memory” as it involves active processing of information, not just passive holding.
- Long-Term Memory (LTM): This is the second stage. It refers to the memory system for the retention of large amounts of information for longer periods. It permits us to remember events that happened many years ago and allows us to remember factual information.
Information moves successively through these three systems if attention is given to the material. If attention is not given, information does not move further into the system.
Extra MCQs: Knowledge-Based
1: The definition “Memory is mental power which consists of learning, retaining, and remembering what has previously been learnt” is attributed to:
A. Woodworth and Marquis
B. Stout
C. James Drever
D. Ryburn
Answer: A. Woodworth and Marquis
51: Chronic alcoholism can lead to brain damage and a disorder called __________ in which memory loss is a predominant symptom.
A. Alzheimer’s disease
B. Korsakoff syndrome
C. Senile dementia
D. Fugue state
Answer: B. Korsakoff syndrome
Extra MCQs: Competency-Based
52: Assertion (A): Spaced learning is often more effective for complex material than mass learning.
Reason (R): Spaced learning incorporates rest intervals, which helps to avoid fatigue and allows for better consolidation of memories.
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
Answer: A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
120: According to the most widely accepted model of memory, information that receives attention moves sequentially through three distinct systems. What is the correct pathway?
A. Short-Term Memory → Sensory Memory → Long-Term Memory
B. Sensory Memory → Short-Term Memory → Long-Term Memory
C. Sensory Memory → Long-Term Memory → Working Memory
D. Working Memory → Rehearsal Loop → Long-Term Memory
Answer: B. Sensory Memory → Short-Term Memory → Long-Term Memory
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