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Introduction
Political and economic history are intricately linked, and in ancient India, we can trace this connection through inscriptions. Inscriptions are a valuable source of information that historians use to understand the past. In the case of ancient India, inscriptions provide a glimpse into the political and economic history of the region.
After the Rig Vedic Age, there is a dearth of material on the condition of the north-western territories of India. However, the Buddhist sources tell us about sixteen great states (Mahajanapadas) in India, but only two states of the north-west India, namely, the Gandhara and Kamboj are mentioned in this list. There were also many small states in the north-west in the 6th century BC, but we do not even know their names. For many centuries, this region remained aloof from the Gangetic plains politically as well as culturally.
In the east, Magadha had risen to be a very powerful state during the rule of Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and the nine Nanda rulers. In 325 BC, Chandra Gupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda dynasty of Magadha and laid the foundation of the Mauryan Empire in India. From the sixth century BC (approximately), there were visible trends of the emergence of the early states, empires, and kingdoms. Underlying these political developments, some changes in the agricultural organization are also evident. Besides, simultaneously new towns were also appearing throughout the subcontinent.
To understand these developments, historians drew material from different sources such as inscriptions, coins, texts, and visual material. However, these sources do not provide the complete picture. In the 1830s, some significant developments took place in the study of Indian inscriptions when James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, the two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He discovered that most of the inscriptions referred to a king as Piyadassi, meaning “pleasant to behold.” He also found some inscriptions which referred to the king as Ashoka, one of the great rulers known from the Buddhist texts.
This discovery opened up new avenues for historians to study ancient India’s political history. They began to use inscriptions and texts composed in various languages to reconstruct the lineage of the important dynasties that had ruled in the subcontinent. By the early twentieth century, the broad contours of political history of ancient India were in place.
Next, the scholars began to focus on the context of political history and investigate whether there were connections between political changes and socio-economic developments. This process was not simple and direct. Nevertheless, inscriptions played a crucial role in this investigation. Inscriptions provide information about land grants, taxes, trade, and commerce. For example, the inscriptions of the Mauryan period reveal a highly centralized system of administration that imposed taxes on various economic activities.
Inscriptions also provide insights into social and religious practices. For instance, inscriptions tell us about the construction of stupas, temples, and other religious monuments. They provide information about the donors and the social and economic status of the people who contributed to these constructions.
Video tutorial
Textual questions and answers
Very Short Answer Questions
1. What is the importance of the 6th century B.C. in the history of ancient India?
Answer: The historians regard the sixth century as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today.
2. Why is James Princep’s contribution considered as the historic development in the Indian epigraphy?
Answer: James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, the two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He discovered that most of the inscriptions referred to a king as Piyadassi, meaning “pleasant to behold”.
3. What were guilds? What was their position in the economic system during the Mauryan rule?
Answer: The craftsmen were organised into guilds or shrenis. There are references about the guilds of weavers, braziers, oil-millers, bamboo workers, corn dealers, ivory workers. The organisation of guilds gave to craftsmen political and economic power. The goods were sold under the supervision of the government officers and a tax of 10 per cent was levied on the sales.
4. Who was Varahamihira? What was his contribution to the science of astronomy?
Answer: The other notable astronomer of the period was Varahamihira. In his Panchasidhanta, he has given a description of the five systems of astronomy in use in his times. His work on astrology Brihat Samhita is a collection of all available knowledge on technical sciences like architecture, metallurgy, physiognomy, etc.
5. Give the names of any two inscriptions which mention land grants.
Answer: The Damodarpur inscriptions, the Faridpur copper inscriptions.
Short Answers Type Questions
1. “The 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history.” Justify with two arguments.
Answer: The historians regard the sixth century BCE as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today.
2. ‘There are limits to what epigraphy can reveal’. Justify this statement.
Answer: But there are certain limits to what epigraphy can reveal. Sometimes, there are technical limitations: letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. Also, inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time. If you go through an epigraphical journal, you will realise that scholars are constantly debating and discussing alternative ways of reading inscriptions.
3. Explain the sources used by historians to reconstruct the history of Mauryan empire.
Answer: As we enter the Mauryan period, the history of India gains interest owing to the discovery of many historical accounts which are reliable. Besides the Buddhist and Jaina religious books, we have discovered historical accounts left by the foreigners, inscriptions, coins and monuments for extracting and reconstructing an almost correct history of the period. Megasthenes left an interesting record “Indica” of his stay at the court of Chandragupta Maurya between 320-298 BCE. Kautilya’s “Arthashastra” is another important source of Mauryan history. It is believed that he was the minister of Mauryan ruler. The “Mudra-Rakshasa” written by Vaishakha Datta in the 5th century CE gives an account of how Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas. The Jaina and Buddhist and Puranic literature also throw light on the history of the Mauryas. The inscriptions of Junagarh and Ashoka’s (about 272/268-231 BCE) inscriptions on rocks and pillars are among the most useful sources.
4. “The mid first millennium BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in world history”. Justify.
Answer: The historians regard the sixth century BCE as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today. The texts of these religions, besides mentioning other things, refer to sixteen states known as Mahajanapadas (settlements of clans or tribes). Although the names given in the texts vary, some names such as Avanti, Vasta, Kosala, Magadha, Kuru and Panchala occur frequently. It seems that these Mahajanapadas were more powerful than the others. All these states were situated in the valleys of the Ganges and the Yamuna.
5. Describe the economic and social conditions of the people living in rural areas from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE.
Answer: The stability of the Mauryan empire depended on agriculture, trade, and commerce. Agriculture was the main occupation, with many small landlords. Large tracts of land were reclaimed using slaves and laborers. Chandragupta Maurya built the Sudarshana Lake for irrigation. The money lending class supported agricultural growth by providing loans, leading to the development of new villages.
Animal husbandry was also important. Shepherds and herdsmen, considered Shudras in the Varna system, reared cows, buffaloes, goats, and sheep. Crafts and industry grew with trade, and artisans organized into guilds. These guilds had political and economic power, selling goods under government supervision and paying a 10% tax on sales.
Lower classes included potters, weavers, barbers, dancers, and Chandalas, who were excluded from the Varna system. People led moral lives, rarely locked doors, and had a high standard of living. Women held a high status but polygamy was common in aristocratic families. The caste system was well-developed, with Brahmanas enjoying the highest position, performing religious rites, and practicing astrology.
Long Answers Questions
1. Describe how the inscriptions open the doors of history.
Answer: Inscriptions are writings usually inscribed on hardstone or metal, either as official documents by kings and authorities or records made by private persons for various purposes. They are engraved on pillars, rocks, walls of caves, copper plates, and stones in many Indian languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, Telugu, etc. These inscriptions provide information about common people and shed light on the social, economic, and religious conditions of the times. They often contain details about reigning kings and their ancestors and are typically dated, making them invaluable for unfolding ancient Indian history that spans thousands of years. The beginning of epigraphical studies, or the study of inscriptions, can be traced to the end of the 18th century, due to the efforts of western scholars. The epigraphical branch of the Archaeological Survey of India was established in AD 1886 to track down, copy, and chronologically edit the texts of numerous copper plates and stone inscriptions believed to be scattered across the Indian subcontinent. The German Indologist E. Hultzsch served as the first government epigraphist. The first fascicules of the well-known journal “Epigraphia Indica” were published in October AD 1887. On a rough estimate, nearly 1,00,000 inscriptions have been discovered throughout the subcontinent. These inscriptions are significant because the scripts of all Indian languages, except Urdu, are derived from a common source, the mother script Brahmi, found in Ashoka’s edicts and inscriptions. While the tradition of writing in India can be traced to the third millennium BC with the pictographic cum ideographic writings on the seals and sealings of the Indus Valley Civilization, the history of decipherable Indian writing begins only in the Mauryan period.
2. Explain the main features of Mauryan administration and explain the principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma.
Answer: Central Government – The King: At the apex of the whole administration was the emperor, the fountainhead of all authority. His powers were unlimited. He was the lawgiver, the supreme judge, the commander of the army, and the chief executive. With the expansion of the Mauryan Empire, the functions and powers of the king further increased.
Duties of King’s Officials: The king appointed men of high character and wisdom as his ministers. They were of two ranks: Mantris (senior ministers and chief advisors) and Amatyas (executive officers working under the Mantris).
Provincial Administration: The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces. In Ashoka’s time, five provinces are mentioned: the Northern Province with its capital at Taxila, the Western Province with its capital at Ujjayini, the Southern Province with its capital at Swarnanagri, the Kalinga province with its capital at Tosali, and the Central Province with its capital at Pataliputra. Governors were generally princes of royal blood styled as Kumara or Aryaputra.
Local Administration: Provinces were divided into districts called Janapadas, each with officials like Pradesika, Rajuka, and Yukta. Cities were divided into wards, each with its own court of justice and a city superintendent assisted by a board of thirty members in places like Pataliputra.
Ashoka’s Dhamma: Ashoka held that his people could not be truly happy unless they led a moral life. Morality was necessary for true happiness. He picked up well-known ethical principles common to all religions and styled them as Dhamma. These principles, inscribed on rocks, included respect for elders, proper treatment of juniors, truthfulness, charity, non-violence, toleration, and kindness to slaves and servants. Ashoka’s edicts stressed respect for teachers, proper treatment of friends, relatives, slaves, and servants, and reverence to all sects. Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamatta, officers to propagate these values. They toured the empire to ensure the Emperor’s policies were implemented among all classes and creeds.
3. Explain the agricultural practices followed by the cultivators to increase productivity from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE.
Answer: Agricultural Practices:
- The introduction of iron tools, such as ploughshares, helped in bringing more land under cultivation.
- Paddy transplantation was introduced in the Ganga valley, increasing rice yield significantly.
- Farmers used various techniques like crop rotation and multiple cropping to enhance soil fertility and maximize output.
- Irrigation systems were developed, including wells, tanks, and canals, to ensure water supply to crops. For example, the Sudarshana Lake in Gujarat was an important source of irrigation.
- The use of organic manure, such as cow dung, and other natural fertilizers improved soil fertility.
- Farmers practiced mixed farming, combining crop cultivation with animal husbandry, which provided manure and draft power for agriculture.
4. Explain the characteristics of Mahajanapadas and explain Magadha as the most powerful Janapada.
Answer: Characteristics of Mahajanapadas:
- Sixteen Mahajanapadas emerged in the 6th century BCE, located mainly in the fertile regions of the Ganges and Yamuna valleys.
- Each Mahajanapada had a capital city, often fortified, indicating the need for defense and administrative control.
- Most Mahajanapadas were monarchies, while some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared among a group of influential people.
- These states maintained standing armies and bureaucracies to administer their territories.
- They collected taxes from cultivators, traders, and artisans to maintain the state machinery and fortified cities.
Magadha:
- Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, comprising present-day Patna and Gaya districts in Bihar.
- It had several advantages: natural defenses with hills surrounding its capital, fertile lands watered by the Ganges and the Sone rivers, and accessible iron mines for tools and weapons.
- Magadha’s power was also attributed to its ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and Mahapadma Nanda, who implemented strategic policies with their ministers’ help.
- Initially, the capital was at Rajagaha (Rajgir), later shifted to Pataliputra (Patna), strategically located along the Ganges for trade and communication.
5. There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions. Discuss.
Answer: Inscriptions in ancient India provide a comprehensive view of various aspects of life, culture, and activities. They contain records of political events, achievements of rulers, donations and grants to religious institutions, and public welfare activities. The inscriptions reveal details about social hierarchy, economic conditions, and religious practices. They mention the construction of infrastructure like tanks, wells, and canals, indicating the importance of water management in agriculture. Inscriptions also reflect cultural activities, such as the patronage of arts, literature, and education by the ruling elites. Thus, inscriptions serve as a vital source of information about the multifaceted life of ancient Indians.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Who was the founder of the Mauryan dynasty?
A. Chandragupta Maurya
B. Ashoka
C. Vikramaditya
D. Ajatshatru
Answer: A. Chandragupta Maurya
2. According to the sources of Ashoka, he spread the idea of:
A. Dhamma
B. Knowledge
C. Scholars
D. Education
Answer: A. Dhamma
3. Who won the battle with Kalinga?
A. Kautilya
B. Chandragupta Maurya
C. Bimbisara
D. Ashoka
Answer: D. Ashoka
4. What title was used by most of the Kushana rulers?
A. Devputra
B. Devtulya
C. Devraj
D. Devnaam
Answer: A. Devputra
5. Identify the best reason for considering King Ashoka as ‘Devanampiya’ and ‘Piyadassi’ by his subjects.
A. Ashoka commissioned the edicts himself.
B. He adopted the title of ‘Devaputra’.
C. Epigraphists have concluded him as Devanampiya.
D. He did well being of society through Dhamma.
Answer: D. He did well being of society through Dhamma.
Competency-based Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following statements about Mahajanapadas are correct?
I. Mahajanapadas were Magadha, Koshala, Gandhara, and Avanti only.
II. Most Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings.
III. Some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies ruled under rajas.
IV. Each Mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
Options:
A. I, II & III
B. II, III, IV
C. I, III, & IV
D. I, II & IV
Answer: B. II, III, IV
2. He was called as ‘Devanampiya’ and ‘Piyadassi’. He ruled the Indian subcontinent from 268 to 232 BCE. He is remembered for the propagation of Dhamma. Who among the following ruler has been described in the above information?
A. Ashoka
B. Chandragupta Maurya
C. Samudra Gupta
D. Ajatshatru
Answer: A. Ashoka
3. Which one of the following is a correct pair?
| LIST-I Rulers | LIST-II Regions |
| A. Cholas | Tamil Nadu |
| B. Hoysalas | Orissa |
| C. Sulta | Karnataka |
| D. Gajapati | Deccan |
Answer: A. Cholas—Tamil Nadu
4. Consider the following statements regarding Magadha:
(i) Magadha was the most powerful mahajanapada.
(ii) Initially, Pataliputra was the capital of Magadha and later it was shifted to Rajagriha.
(iii) Elephants were found in abundance in the forests of Magadha.
Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. (i) and (ii)
B. (ii) and (iii)
C. (i) and (iii)
D. All of the above
Answer: C. (i) and (iii)
5. Match the columns:
| Column A | Column B |
| (i) Rule of Asoka | (A) 327 BC |
| (ii) Beginning of the Gupta period | (B) 272 BC |
| (iii) Attack of Alexander | (C) 500 BC |
| (iv) Magadh becoming powerful | (D) 320 BC |
Options:
A. (i) (D) (ii) (A), (iii) (C), (iv) (B)
B. (i) (A) (ii) (B), (iii) (C), (iv) (D)
C. (i) (B) (ii) (D), (iii) (A), (iv) (C)
D. (i) (C) (ii) (B), (iii) (D), (iv) (A)
Answer: C. (i) (B) (ii) (D), (iii) (A), (iv) (C)
6. Which of the following are the major literary sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire?
(i) Arthashastra of Kautilya
(ii) Work of Megasthenes, a Greek Ambassador
(iii) Buddhist, Jaina and Pauranic literature
(iv) Meghaduta of Kalidasa
Options:
A. (i), (ii) & (iii)
B. (ii), (iii), (iv)
C. (i), (ii) & (iv)
D. All of the above
Answer: A. (i), (ii) & (iii)
7. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding records?
A. The writings which are found on the metal, stone, or mud artifacts are known as records.
B. It contains information, achievements, and chronological events of the people who have ordered to make it.
C. The records are only written in Prakrit script.
D. The records are basically a testament of that period.
Answer: C. The records are only written in Prakrit script.
8. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding the headman?
A. Headman is a powerful person.
B. It is not a hierarchical position.
C. The supporters of a Headman are his family.
D. He meets people who are below him.
Answer: B. It is not a hierarchical position.
9. Match the right pairs:
| Dynasty | Ruler |
| (i) Sunga | (a) Bindusar |
| (ii) Kushana | (b) Pushyamitra |
| (iii) Maurya | (c) Sri Gupta |
| (iv) Gupta | (d) Kanishka |
Options:
A. (i) (a), (ii) (b), (iii) (c), (iv) (d)
B. (i) (b), (ii) (d), (iii) (a), (iv) (c)
C. (i) (c), (ii) (a), (iii) (d), (iv) (b)
D. (i) (d), (ii) (c), (iii) (b), (iv) (a)
Answer: B. (i) (b), (ii) (d), (iii) (a), (iv) (c)
Assertion-Reason Questions
The following questions consist of two statements-Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions selecting the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but R is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
1. Assertion (A): Archaeological sources are generally more reliable than literary sources.
Reason (R): There are little scopes for tampering with archaeological sources than literary sources.
Answer: (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
2. Assertion (A): Emperor Ashoka has repeatedly talked about heaven and described himself as Devanampiya.
Reason (R): Emperor Ashoka’s Dhamma was a form of Brahmin religion.
Answer: (c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
Case-based Questions
A1. Which part of India became an important centre of foreign trade in ancient time?
Answer: South India
A2. Which item was imported in South India?
Answer: Coins
A3. Which item was exported from Southern India?
Answer: Black Pepper
A4. Name the book written by an anonymous Greek sailor on trade and commerce in Southern India in ancient times?
Answer: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
B1. How did Queen Prabhavati Gupta try to earn religious merit?
Answer: By donating the village of Danguna to the Acharya (teacher) Chanalasvamin with the pouring out of water.
B2. Explain the unusual aspect of the Land Grant.
Answer: The village was granted exemptions typical of an agrahara, including exemption from soldiers and policemen entering, providing grass, hides, charcoal, purchasing fermenting liquors, digging salt, rights to mines and khadira trees, supplying flowers and milk, and included hidden treasures and deposits with major and minor taxes.
B3. What does this inscription tell us about the relationship between the state and the ordinary people? Explain.
Answer: The inscription indicates that the state had the power to confer significant privileges and exemptions to individuals or institutions, showing a relationship where the state could influence local governance and economy by granting autonomy and fiscal benefits to certain beneficiaries. It reflects a hierarchical system where the state’s decisions directly impacted the daily lives and responsibilities of ordinary people in the village.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. In what year did Chandra Gupta Maurya overthrow the Nanda dynasty?
A. 327 BC
B. 325 BC
C. 323 BC
D. 321 BC
Answer: D. 321 BC
80. Who was the first government epigraphist for the Archaeological Survey of India?
A. E.Hultzach
B. Ashoka
C. Samudragupta
D. Chandragupta II
Answer: A. E.Hultzach
Extra/additional questions and answers
1: Which two states of north-west India are mentioned in the list of sixteen great states (Mahajanapadas) according to Buddhist sources?
Answer: Gandhara and Kamboj.
2: What was the significance of the sixth century BC in early Indian history?
Answer: The historians regard the sixth century as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today. The texts of these religions, besides mentioning other things, refer to sixteen states known as Mahajanapadas (settlements of clans or tribes). Although the names given in the texts vary, some names such as Avanti, Vasta, Kosala, Magadha, Kuru and Panchala occur frequently. It seems that these Mahajanapadas were more powerful than the others. All these states were situated in the valleys of the Ganges and the Yamuna.
79. What are the limitations of inscriptional evidence?
Answer: The limitations include technical issues such as faintly engraved letters, damaged inscriptions, and missing letters, making reconstructions uncertain. The exact meaning of some words can be difficult to determine. Not all inscriptions have been deciphered, published, or translated, and many inscriptions have not survived. Inscriptions may not record routine activities or the daily lives of common people, focusing instead on grand events. The content often reflects the perspective of those who commissioned them, requiring juxtaposition with other perspectives for a better understanding of the past.
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