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Summary
The Harappan Civilisation, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, is one of the earliest urban cultures in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It flourished around 2500 BCE along the Indus River and its tributaries. This civilisation was contemporary with the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilisations and is distinguished for its advanced urban planning, architecture, and social organisation.
The Harappan culture is primarily known through archaeological findings such as buildings, pottery, sculptures, seals, and cemeteries, as no decipherable written records have been discovered. Key sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Dholavira. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro is a significant structure, indicating advanced engineering and possibly used for ritual bathing. The Citadel, another prominent feature, housed important buildings and suggests a well-organised society with social and political hierarchies.
Harappan cities were meticulously planned with a grid system, featuring wide main streets intersected by smaller lanes. Houses were built with baked bricks and had private wells and drainage systems, showcasing an advanced understanding of sanitation and urban living. The presence of granaries, especially in Harappa, indicates large-scale storage and possibly controlled distribution of food grains, hinting at a complex economic structure.
Trade was a vital part of the Harappan economy, both within the region and with distant lands such as Mesopotamia. Evidence of seals used to mark trade goods and the discovery of Harappan artifacts in other regions support the existence of extensive trade networks. Art and craft were highly developed, as seen in the intricate designs on pottery, the production of beads, and the sophisticated bronze statues, like the famous Dancing Girl.
The decline of the Harappan Civilisation around 1800 BCE remains a subject of debate. Possible causes include natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes, climatic changes leading to increased aridity, deforestation, and possibly invasions by the Aryans. Despite its decline, many aspects of Harappan culture, such as urban planning, crafts, and certain religious practices, influenced later Indian civilizations and can still be seen today.
The Harappan Civilisation’s achievements in urban planning, trade, and art mark it as a cornerstone of ancient history, reflecting a highly organised and innovative society .
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Textbook (Total History) solutions
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. The period when man used both stone and copper tools is known as:
A. Bronze Age Period
B. Chalcolithic Period
C. Mesopotamian Civilisation Period
D. Egyptian Period
Answer: B. Chalcolithic Period
2. Name the term archaeologists use for a group of objects distinctive in style, usually found together within a specific geographic area and period of time.
A. Civilisation
B. Culture
C. Period
D. History
Answer: B. Culture
3. Which of the following insights about the Harappan Civilisation was provided by the citadel?
A. There were public buildings for specific purposes.
B. There was ceremonial bathing.
C. There was overseas trade.
D. The people were literate.
Answer: A. There were public buildings for specific purposes.
4. Which of the following is NOT a feature of the Dockyard at Lothal?
A. World’s oldest dockyard
B. Presence of mud brick platform
C. Surrounded by wall of baked bricks
D. Connected by channels to Gulf of Cambay
Answer: B. Presence of mud brick platform
5. What made the pool at the Great Bath watertight?
A. Burnt bricks
B. Mortar lined with bitumen and gypsum
C. Mud brick platforms
D. Both (a) and (b)
Answer: D. Both (a) and (b)
6. Which of the following is a feature of the Great Bath?
A. Tank in a courtyard
B. Tank surrounded by corridors
C. Porticos and rooms
D. All of the above
Answer: D. All of the above
7. Bronze statues were made by a special process called:
A. Moulded clay process
B. Lost wax process
C. Clay wax process
D. Lost clay process
Answer: B. Lost wax process
8. Features of the Indus script include:
A. Alphabetical order
B. Written from right to left
C. Written from left to right
D. All of the above
Answer: B. Written from right to left
9. Seals were made of:
A. Steatite
B. Terracotta
C. Agate
D. All of the above
Answer: D. All of the above
10. Seals are not a source of information for:
A. Script
B. Trade
C. Beliefs
D. Society
Answer: D. Society
11. Bearded man, found in Mohenjo-daro, is a statue of a meditative man wearing:
A. An amulet
B. A shawl
C. A bangle
D. An elaborate headdress
Answer: B. A shawl
12. The ‘Dancing Girl’ has which of the following features?
A. Half-closed eyes
B. Heavily-bangled left arm
C. Elaborate headdress
D. Seated cross-legged
Answer: B. Heavily-bangled left arm
Select the correct relationship
1. (A) The period when man used both stone and copper tools is known as the Chalcolithic Period.
(B) The Harappan Civilisation emerged in the Chalcolithic Period.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: b) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: The Chalcolithic Period refers to the time when both stone and copper tools were used by humans. During this period, the Harappan Civilisation emerged as one of the earliest urban cultures in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The ability to use copper, along with stone, marked a significant technological advancement, which contributed to the development of more complex societies like the Harappans. Thus, the emergence of the Harappan Civilisation is directly related to the Chalcolithic Period, as the use of metal tools was a key factor in its rise.
2. (A) The Harappan Civilisation is considered as the first civilisation that arose in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.
(B) The Harappan Civilisation is also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: b) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: The Harappan Civilisation, which developed along the Indus River and its tributaries, is often referred to as the Indus Valley Civilisation. This is because its most significant sites, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, were located in the valley of the Indus River. The name “Indus Valley Civilisation” reflects its geographical context and emphasizes its position as the first major urban culture in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Therefore, the name “Indus Valley Civilisation” provides a geographical reference that helps to identify the Harappan Civilisation as the earliest known civilisation in this region.
3. (A) The Harappan Civilisation is also known as the Harappan Culture.
(B) The term ‘Culture’ refers to a group of distinctive objects such as seals, weights, stone blades, and baked bricks found within a specific geographical area and time period.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: b) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: Archaeologists often use the term “culture” to describe a collection of distinctive objects that are found together within a specific geographical area and time period. In the case of the Harappan Civilisation, the term “Harappan Culture” is used because of the distinctive objects, such as seals, weights, and baked bricks, that are characteristic of this civilisation. These artifacts provide insights into the lifestyle, trade, and technological advancements of the Harappan people. Thus, the use of the term “Harappan Culture” is directly related to the distinct group of objects associated with this civilisation, justifying the use of (B) as the reason for (A).
4. (A) One of the important sources of information about the Harappan Civilisation are the seals.
(B) The script used for the letters engraved on seals has not been deciphered.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Explanation: The seals from the Harappan Civilisation are indeed crucial sources of information, providing insights into the trade, religious beliefs, and social practices of the time. These seals often feature engravings of animals, mythical figures, and a script that has yet to be deciphered. However, the fact that the script has not been deciphered does not directly affect the seals’ importance as sources of historical information. The two statements are independent of each other: (A) highlights the seals’ significance in studying the Harappan Civilisation, while (B) discusses the current limitations in understanding the script used on these seals.
5. (A) The Great Bath has a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
(B) The water for the Great Bath was provided by the Indus River.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: c) (A) is true but (B) is false.
Explanation: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is one of the most remarkable structures of the Harappan Civilisation, featuring a large rectangular tank surrounded by a corridor. However, the water for the Great Bath was not directly sourced from the Indus River. Instead, it was likely supplied by a well located within the complex. The bath was lined with bitumen to make it watertight, indicating a sophisticated understanding of construction and water management. Therefore, while statement (A) accurately describes the structure of the Great Bath, statement (B) is incorrect in its claim about the water source.
6. (A) The Great Bath is one of the largest public buildings at Mohenjo-daro.
(B) The massive structure of the Great Bath indicates the existence of a ruling class.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: b) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: The Great Bath is indeed one of the most significant public structures in Mohenjo-daro, and its size and complexity suggest that it was not merely a communal facility but a symbol of authority and religious significance. The ability to mobilize the labor and resources needed to build such a massive structure implies the existence of a powerful ruling class that could organize large-scale construction projects. This indicates a hierarchical society with a central authority capable of directing and overseeing major public works, supporting the idea that the Great Bath’s massive structure reflects the presence of a ruling class.
7. (A) About 2000 Harappan seals have been discovered.
(B) The seals were mainly used for religious purposes.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: c) (A) is true but (B) is false.
Explanation: While it is true that approximately 2000 seals from the Harappan Civilisation have been discovered, their primary purpose was not religious. The seals were mostly used in trade, serving as markers of ownership and authenticity, similar to modern-day trademarks. They were pressed into clay to seal goods and indicate that the contents had not been tampered with. Some seals may have had religious or symbolic motifs, but their main function was economic, making statement (B) incorrect.
8. (A) The Bearded Man is a three-dimensional stone sculpture discovered from Mohenjo-daro.
(B) According to some scholars, it is a statue of a yogi or a priest.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Explanation: The Bearded Man is indeed a three-dimensional stone sculpture discovered at Mohenjo-daro, which is well-known for its artistic depiction of a man with a beard. Statement (A) accurately describes this artifact. Statement (B) introduces a scholarly interpretation that this figure might represent a yogi or a priest, based on the figure’s meditative posture and dignified appearance. However, these two statements do not directly depend on one another; (A) describes a fact about the artifact, while (B) provides an interpretation of its possible identity. Therefore, the statements are independent of each other.
9. (A) Overseas trade was carried out at Lothal.
(B) Lothal was a port with a dockyard.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: b) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: Lothal, one of the major sites of the Harappan Civilisation, is renowned for its dockyard, which is considered one of the earliest known examples of such a structure. This dockyard was connected to a network of channels that linked it to the Arabian Sea, facilitating overseas trade. The existence of this dockyard at Lothal enabled the Harappans to engage in trade with regions as far as Mesopotamia. Therefore, the presence of the dockyard is the reason why Lothal was able to participate in overseas trade, making (B) the reason for (A).
10. (A) The lower town had the residential buildings where people lived and worked.
(B) The residential buildings were built on a high mound to protect them from floods.
a) (B) contradicts (A)
b) (B) is the reason for (A)
c) (A) is true but (B) is false
d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: b) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: In the Harappan cities, the lower town was where the majority of the population lived and worked. The residential buildings in this area were often constructed on raised mounds. This elevation was a deliberate architectural choice to protect the inhabitants from the seasonal flooding of the Indus River and its tributaries. By building on higher ground, the Harappans ensured that their homes and streets remained dry during floods, allowing the city to function even during the rainy season. Therefore, the need to protect residential areas from floods is the reason for their construction on high mounds, making (B) the reason for (A).
Short Answer Questions
1. Name two important sources of information about the Harappan Civilisation.
Answer: The two important sources of information about the Harappan Civilisation are buildings and the seals.
2. Name one important public building of Indus Valley Civilisation and its importance.
Answer: The Great Bath is an important public building of the Indus Valley Civilisation. It indicates the high degree of perfection in the art of building, the existence of a ruling class that could mobilise labour, and the importance of ceremonial bathing in religious practices.
3. Give any two characteristic features of the citadel.
Answer: Two characteristic features of the citadel are:
- It housed the ruling class and important public buildings like the Great Bath and the granary.
- It was built on mud brick platforms, which gave it an elevated position.
4. How were seals used? What information do they give about Harappan trade?
Answer: Seals were used by traders to stamp their goods. After a bag with goods was tied, a layer of wet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal was pressed on it leaving an impression. If the bag reached its destination with its seal intact, it indicated that it had not been tampered with. The seals convey the identity of the sender or the owner and indicate that Harappan trade had spread over a vast area.
5. Briefly describe granaries at Harappa.
Answer: Granaries at Harappa consisted of two rows of six granaries each. To the south of the granaries were working floors with rows of circular brick platforms, believed to be meant for threshing grain. These granaries were built on raised platforms to protect them from floods and had ventilation to prevent grains from becoming mildewed.
6. Briefly describe the ornaments worn by the Harappans.
Answer: The Harappans wore ornaments made of gold, silver, precious stones, and ivory. Common ornaments included necklaces, finger-rings, bangles, armlets, anklets, nose rings, fan-shaped head-dress, and earrings.
7. Briefly describe the statue of the dancing girl.
Answer: The statue of the dancing girl is a bronze figure found at Mohenjo-daro. It shows a young girl in a confident pose, with her right arm on her hip and her left arm heavily bangled, holding a small bowl against her left leg. This statue demonstrates a high degree of development in the art of sculpture.
8. Mention the types of dress worn by the Indus Valley people.
Answer: The Indus Valley men wore a dhoti and a shawl as an upper garment. The women wore skirts and used a cloak to cover their arms and shoulders. Needles and buttons found at some sites indicate that some of the clothes were stitched.
9. State two features of the internal trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Answer: Two features of the internal trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation are:
- Trade in stone, metal, and shell within the Indus civilisation zone.
- Use of barter system for exchanges, as metal money was not used.
10. State any two evidences that show the Harappans also had trade relations with foreign countries.
Answer: Two evidences of trade relations with foreign countries are:
- Mesopotamian records referring to trade relations with Meluha (Indus region).
- Discovery of seals, stone anchors, and marine shells at sites like Lothal, which indicate trade with the Persian Gulf.
11. Name the four animals depicted on the Pashupati seal.
Answer: The four animals depicted on the Pashupati seal are the elephant, tiger, buffalo, and rhinoceros.
12. State any two causes that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.
Answer: Two causes that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation are:
- Floods and earthquakes that might have led to the abandonment of settlements like Mohenjo-daro.
- Increased aridity and the drying up of the river Ghaggar, leading to ecological disturbances.
13. What types of weights and measures did the Indus people use?
Answer: The Indus people used sets of cubical stone weights. The basic unit was 16, and larger weights were multiples of 16 like 32, 48, and 64. Smaller weights were fractions of 16.
14. State any two ways to show the value of Indus Script as a source of historical information.
Answer: Two ways to show the value of the Indus Script as a source of historical information are:
- The script was written from right to left, as indicated by wider spaces on the right side of seals.
- The presence of the script on a variety of objects suggests that many people were literate.
15. In what two respects is Harappan Civilisation our greatest heritage?
Answer: Two respects in which the Harappan Civilisation is our greatest heritage are:
- The cultivation of cotton, which was later adopted by the Egyptians.
- The religious practices, such as the worship of Pashupati Shiva and the Mother Goddess, which have continued to this day.
16. How did Indus pottery reflect the potter’s artistic skill?
Answer: Indus pottery, made glossy and shining, reflected the potter’s artistic skill through decorations with black geometrical designs. The large jars with narrow necks and red pots with black decoration demonstrated their artistic craftsmanship.
17. Name and briefly describe the process by which sculpture in metal was done.
Answer: The process by which sculpture in metal was done is called the lost wax process. In this process, wax figures were covered with a coating of clay. The wax was melted by heating, and the hollow mould was filled with molten metal, which took the original shape of the wax object.
18. Briefly describe the social classification of Harappans as pointed out by the citadel.
Answer: The social classification of Harappans, as pointed out by the citadel, indicates the presence of a ruling class that lived in the citadel. The citadel housed important public buildings such as the Great Bath and the granary, suggesting a degree of political organisation and social stratification. This indicates that the Harappan society had a hierarchical structure with a class of rulers and possibly priests or officials who oversaw various aspects of urban life and governance.
Structured Questions
1. With reference to Harappan Culture, answer the following questions:
(a) Discuss briefly the indigenous origin of the Harappan Civilisation.
Answer: The recent researches show that roots of the Harappan Civilisation lie deep in the Indian soil. According to some historians, the urban Harappan culture was only an outgrowth of the extensive local village cultures and not of foreign origin. These cultures probably contributed to the growth of the Harappan Civilisation, together with the external stimulus provided by trade contacts with Mesopotamia. These historians found some marked similarities between the pre-Harappan and proto-Harappan cultures at Kot Diji, Amri and Kalibangan in terms of granary, defensive walls and long-distance trade in these settlements. From this, historians concluded that the Harappan Civilisation evolved from these agricultural communities.
(b) Describe the extent of the civilisation.
Answer: The entire area of the Harappan civilisation is triangular in shape and accounts for about 1.3 million sq. km and was the largest area amongst the ancient civilisations. It extended from Sutkagendor (on the sea-coast of South Baluchistan) in the west, to Alamgirpur (in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab in western UP) in the east and from Manda (in Jammu) in the north to Bhagatrav in Narmada estuary in the south. The Harappan culture covered parts of Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the fringes of Western Uttar Pradesh. Consequent to the partition of India, the main centres of civilisation, i.e., Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro and Sutkagendor are now in Pakistan. Some of the centres of this civilisation in India are Manda, Banawali, Kalibangan, Alamgirpur, Lothal, Rupar and Rangpur. In recent years, many more extensions of this civilisation in Gujarat and Punjab have been discovered. Dholavira in Gujarat is the most prominent among them. The largest sites of the Harappan Civilisation, however, are Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kalibangan and Lothal.
(c) Name any four cities of the Harappan Civilisation and a significant feature of each city.
Answer:
- Harappa – Known for its advanced granary systems.
- Mohenjo-daro – Famous for the Great Bath, an impressive public water tank.
- Kalibangan – Notable for its unique fire altars.
- Lothal – Known for its dockyard, which indicates the presence of maritime trade.
2. With reference to the chief features of the Harappan Civilisation, answer the following:
(a) Any three characteristic features of town planning.
Answer:
- Each city was divided into two parts: the raised area called the ‘Citadel’ and the lower town. The citadel was separated from the lower town by a wall.
- The main streets followed a grid pattern running from north to south or from east to west.
- House drains emptied all waste water into the street drains.
(b) Three special features of the houses of the people.
Answer:
- The residential buildings were built according to a set plan on a high mound to protect them from floods. Their foundations were deep.
- There were variations in the size of houses from single room tenements to bigger houses with courtyards, up to twelve rooms, private wells and toilets. Each house had covered drains connected with street drains.
- The houses were made of brick and wood. Each house had doors, windows and ventilators. Doors and windows opened on the side of the streets and not on the main roads.
(c) Mention any two common elements between Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.
Answer:
- Both cities had a similar layout with the citadel and the lower town, reflecting a common planning structure.
- Both cities had advanced drainage systems, with house drains connected to street drains.
3. Study the picture given on the right and answer the following questions:
(a) Identify the structure. List any two of its characteristic features.
Answer: The structure is the Great Bath. Two characteristic features are:
- It has a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
- The tank was made watertight with burnt bricks and mortar lined with bitumen and gypsum .
(b) State the importance of this structure as a source of information about Harappan Civilisation.
Answer: The Great Bath is an important source of information as it indicates that the art of building had reached a high degree of perfection at that time and it suggests that there might have been a ruling class that could mobilise labour and collect taxes to build such a huge structure for public use .
(c) Name another architectural structure of this period. How does this structure show that Harappan Civilisation was highly developed?
Answer: Another architectural structure of this period is the Citadel. The Citadel shows that Harappan Civilisation was highly developed through its elaborate planning, which included specific buildings for public purposes and houses of the ruling class, indicating some sort of political organisation and social classification .
4. Study the picture of the seal given on the right and answer the following questions:
(a) Identify the seal in the given picture. Which animal is depicted on this seal?
Answer: The seal in the given picture is the Unicorn Seal. The animal depicted on this seal is a one-horned bull .
(b) Of what material were these seals made? Why were the seals used?
Answer: These seals were made of materials such as terracotta, steatite, and agate. The seals were used by traders to stamp their goods, indicating that the bag with goods had not been tampered with and conveying the identity of the sender or the owner .
(c) What do the seals reveal about the Harappans?
Answer: The seals reveal that the Harappans had a script that has not yet been deciphered, indicating a form of literacy. They also show the Harappans’ artistic skills and provide insights into their trade, religion, and beliefs, as evidenced by the images and inscriptions on the seals .
Extra/additional MCQs
1. What was the first metal to be discovered and used by man?
A. Bronze
B. Iron
C. Copper
D. Tin
Answer: C. Copper
60. Who believed that the Aryans destroyed the Indus settlements?
A. R.L. Raikes
B. Mortimer Wheeler
C. D.P. Agarwal
D. Sood
Answer: B. Mortimer Wheeler
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What was the first metal to be discovered?
Answer: Copper.
90. Discuss the various factors that contributed to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation, providing details on each factor.
Answer: The decline of the Harappan Civilisation around 1800 B.C. can be attributed to several factors:
- Floods and Earthquakes: Scholars believe that repeated flooding led to the abandonment of Mohenjo-daro. The presence of silty clay over the streets and houses suggests severe flooding. R.L. Raikes proposed that these floods were not typical but caused by earthquakes that elevated the flood plains of the Indus river, blocking its passage to the sea and causing widespread inundation.
- Increased Aridity: Historians D.P. Agarwal and Sood pointed out that increasing aridity and the drying up of the river Ghaggar contributed significantly to the civilisation’s decline. Tectonic disturbances diverted the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers away from the Ghaggar, leaving it waterless. This shift in the drainage pattern and resulting ecological disturbances made the region unsustainable for the Harappan people.
- Deforestation: The Bronze Age culture of the Indus valley required enormous quantities of wood for various purposes, including bronze production, jewellery making, and construction. This extensive deforestation likely led to climatic changes that disrupted the ecological balance, contributing to the civilisation’s decline.
- Attack: Some historians, like Mortimer Wheeler, believed that the Aryans played a role in the decline by attacking and destroying Indus settlements. Wheeler cited evidence of skeletons found in Mohenjo-daro’s streets and houses, suggesting a massacre that marked the settlement’s violent end.
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