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Summary
The chapter discusses the Sangam Age, a significant period in South Indian history, particularly in Tamil Nadu. This era is marked by the creation of a large body of Tamil literature, composed by poets and scholars during three literary assemblies known as Sangams. These gatherings took place between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD, primarily in the Pandya kingdom, with Madurai as the main centre.
The Sangam literature provides valuable insights into the society, economy, and political landscape of the time. The main sources of information about this period are the “Tirukkural,” a collection of ethical teachings by the poet Tiruvalluvar, and megalithic structures used as burial sites or memorials. The Sangam literature, although not entirely preserved, offers a glimpse into the life and values of the people through poems, epics, and other literary works.
The three major Tamil kingdoms during this period were the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Each kingdom had its distinct characteristics and symbols. The Cheras, ruling over present-day Kerala, were known for their bow and arrow emblem. Their most famous ruler, Senguttuvan, is remembered for his military expeditions and the worship of Kannagi, a symbol of chastity. The Cholas, whose kingdom was rich in water resources due to the Kaveri River, were led by notable kings like Karikalan, who was known for his military conquests and development of infrastructure. The Pandyas, ruling over Madurai, were patrons of Tamil literature and arts, with their symbol being a fish.
Society during the Sangam Age was divided into different classes, with some early signs of caste distinctions. However, the larger society remained relatively egalitarian compared to later periods. Agriculture was the main occupation, with rice as the staple crop. The economy was self-sufficient, with trade, both internal and external, playing a crucial role. The period saw extensive trade with foreign countries, particularly with the Roman Empire, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman coins in Tamil Nadu.
The position of women in Sangam society varied, with some enjoying freedom and education, as reflected by the presence of women poets. However, the status of women was not equal to that of men, with different roles assigned based on societal norms. The chapter also highlights the importance of local chieftains, known as Velirs, who played a significant role in supporting poets and maintaining political stability in their regions.
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Textbook (Total History) solutions
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. The word ‘Sangam’, literally means:
(a) Association
(b) Involvement
(c) Opposite
(d) Kingdom
Answer: (a) Association
2. Tirukkural is a collection of Tamil couplets organised into chapters.
(a) 134
(b) 133
(c) 113
(d) 143
Answer: (b) 133
3. What are the box-like structures erected with the stone slabs, resting on each other without any mortar called?
(a) Megaliths
(b) Tirukkural
(c) Couplets
(d) Malaiyar
Answer: (a) Megaliths
4. The Tirukkural had three sections, namely
(a) Aram, Porul and Inbam
(b) Vanavar, Malaiyar and Udiyan
(c) Tolkappiyam, Tirukkural and Tiruvalluvar
(d) None of the above.
Answer: (a) Aram, Porul and Inbam
5. How are Megalithis or memorial stones a source of information?
(a) Information about religious beliefs
(b) Information about tools and implements
(c) Information about life of people
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (d) All of the above.
6. Which of the following is not a sobriquet for Chera kings?
(a) Vanavar
(b) Villavar
(c) Malaiyar
(d) Udiyan
Answer: (d) Udiyan
7. Which of the following is incorrect?
(a) Chera Kingdom: bow and arrow
(b) Chola Kingdom: Tiger
(c) Pandya kingdom: crocodile
(d) Pandya kingdom: fish
Answer: (c) Pandya kingdom: crocodile
8. The names referring to the Sangam Chola kingdom indicate
(a) Powerful kings
(c) Overseas trade
(b) Rich water resources
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (b) Rich water resources
9. Karikalan was the most popular Sangam Chola ruler because
(a) he was a great warrior and diplomat
(b) he fortified his capital making it a trade-centre
(c) he encouraged growth of agriculture and commerce
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (d) All of the above.
10. The Velirs extended patronage to poets who acted as
(a) administrative agents
(c) patrons of other arts
(b) diplomats and caretakers
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (d) All of the above.
11. Referring to the Sangam society which of the following is incorrect?
(a) Uzhavar: ordinary ploughmen
(c) Adimai: priests
(b) Vellalars: landed aristocrats
(d) Kadasiyar: landless labourers
Answer: (c) Adimai: priests
Select the correct relationship
1. (A) Tamil literature comprises five epics, besides the Tirukkural.
(B) Megaliths acted as burial sites or commemorative memorials.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (D) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Explanation: Statement (A) refers to Tamil literature, which includes five epics, highlighting its cultural and literary heritage. Statement (B) refers to Megaliths, which are ancient structures used as burial sites or memorials. These two statements are about entirely different subjects—one is about literature, and the other is about archaeological structures. Hence, they are independent of each other.
2. (A) The capital of the Cheras was Vanji and their chief port was Thondi.
(B) Their symbol on the flag was tiger.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (C) (A) is true but (B) is false.
Explanation: Statement (A) correctly identifies Vanji as the capital and Thondi as the chief port of the Chera kingdom. However, Statement (B) is incorrect because the symbol on the Chera flag was a bow and arrow, not a tiger. The tiger was the symbol of the Chola kingdom, not the Cheras.
3. (A) The Chola Kingdom was rich in water resources.
(B) The river Kaveri flowed through the Chola Kingdom.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (B) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: The Chola Kingdom was indeed rich in water resources, and this abundance was largely due to the presence of the river Kaveri, which flowed through the kingdom. The river’s presence provided fertile soil and water for agriculture, which contributed to the wealth and prosperity of the Chola Kingdom, making (B) the reason for (A).
4. (A) The most popular ruler of the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan, who was a great warrior.
(B) He not only defeated the Cheras and the Pandya Kings but also a confederacy of nine princes.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (B) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: Karikalan’s reputation as a great warrior is directly supported by his military achievements, including his victories over the Cheras, the Pandya Kings, and a confederacy of nine princes. These victories enhanced his fame and solidified his status as one of the most renowned rulers of the Sangam Cholas, making (B) the reason for (A).
5. (A) The local chieftains who ruled in different parts of Tamil Nadu were called Velirs.
(B) They helped to resolve the disputes among the rulers.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (B) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: The Velirs were indeed local chieftains in Tamil Nadu, and one of their significant roles was to mediate and resolve disputes among the rulers. Their involvement in diplomatic activities among the various rulers of the time explains their importance and the role they played in the political landscape, making (B) the reason for (A).
Short Answer Questions
1. Who was the author of Tirukkural? Name the three sections into which the chapters of Tirukkural are categorised.
Answer: Tiruvalluvar was the author of Tirukkural. The three sections into which the chapters of Tirukkural are categorised are: (a) Aram (righteousness); (b) Porul (wealth); and (c) Inbam or Kamam (pleasure).
2. What are Megaliths? Why are they so called?
Answer: Megaliths are box-like structures erected with the stone slabs, resting on each other without any mortar. Sometimes there was an opening cut into one of the sides. These acted either as burial sites or commemorative memorials. They are called megaliths because they are large stones.
3. Name any four divisions (tinais) mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Answer: The four divisions (tinais) mentioned in the Sangam literature are: (a) hilly backwoods (kurinji), (b) parched zones (palai), (c) pastoral tract (mullai), and (d) wet land (marutam).
4. Who were the Vellalars during the Sangam Age?
Answer: The Vellalars were landed aristocrats, who cultivated the wetlands during the Sangam Age. They had close associations and held high positions of office with the three main dynasties, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. They also carried out trade.
5. Name the main crops grown during the Sangam Period.
Answer: The main crops grown during the Sangam Period were rice, cotton, ragi, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, cinnamon, and different varieties of fruits.
6. Name one centre of cotton trade and the products exported to foreign countries during the Sangam Age.
Answer: Uraiyur was one centre of cotton trade during the Sangam Age. The products exported to foreign countries during the Sangam Age included pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory products, pearls, and precious stones.
7. Name the social divisions of this period and the occupations associated with each one of them.
Answer: The social divisions of this period and the occupations associated with each one of them are:
| Social Division | Occupation |
|---|---|
| Brahmanas | Priests, astrologers, judicial officers |
| Kings | Rulers |
| Traders | Merchants |
| Farmers | Cultivators |
| Uzhavar | Ordinary ploughmen |
| Kadasiyar | Landless labourers |
| Adimai | Slaves |
| Goldsmiths | Making ornaments |
| Blacksmiths | Making tools and weapons |
| Potters | Making pottery |
Structured Questions
1. With reference to the picture given alongside, answer the following:
(a) Identify the lady whose statue this picture is. Why was the lady revered?
Answer: The lady in the statue is Kannagi. She was revered because she is considered the epitome of chastity and devotion to her husband. She is worshipped as the ideal wife who took revenge on the Pandya king for wrongly punishing her husband.
(b) What was the position of women during the Sangam Age?
Answer: The status of women in the Sangam society was not equal to that of men. Women had certain freedoms, such as the freedom of movement and the opportunity for education, as evidenced by the number of women poets from the period. However, the society also had a significant number of courtesans and female ascetics, indicating a diverse range of roles for women.
(c) What does the Tolkappiyam say about ways of living of the people during the Sangam age?
Answer: The Tolkappiyam mentions that the society was divided into different social classes, such as Brahmanas, kings, traders, and farmers. It also describes various modes of human adaptation in different geographical regions, classified into five tinais or divisions: hilly backwoods (kurinji), parched zones (palai), pastoral tracts (mullai), wet land (marutam), and littoral land (neital). Each region had its distinct way of life, influenced by its geography.
2. With reference to the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:
(a) State why the Sangam Age is so called.
Answer: The Sangam Age is so called because it refers to the period when Tamil literature was composed by scholars and poets in three successive literary gatherings known as Sangams. These Sangams were assemblies of poets and scholars held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandya kings.
(b) Name the three kingdoms along with their capitals that existed during the Sangam Age.
Answer: The three kingdoms that existed during the Sangam Age were:
- The Chera Kingdom, with its capital at Vanji.
- The Chola Kingdom, with its capital at Uraiyur.
- The Pandya Kingdom, with its capital at Madurai.
(c) Describe the achievements of Chera ruler, Senguttuvan; and Chola ruler, Karikalan.
Answer: Senguttuvan: Chera ruler Senguttuvan was renowned for bringing a stone from the Himalayas to build a temple dedicated to Kannagi. He led an expedition to the Himalayas, defeated his enemies, and hoisted the Chera flag there. He is credited with initiating the Pattini cult, the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife.
Karikalan: Chola ruler Karikalan was a great warrior who defeated the Chera and Pandya kings at the battle of Venni. He also defeated a confederacy of nine princes. Karikalan is known for his contributions to agriculture and commerce, most notably for constructing the Kallanai dam across the river Kaveri, which facilitated irrigation. He also fortified the port city of Kaveripoompattinam, making it a thriving trade centre.
Thinking Skills
1. How was the society in the Sangam Age different from that in the Vedic Age?
Answer: Society in the Sangam Age was primarily based on the distinction between high born and low born, differentiating the Brahmanas and their patrons from the common people. On the other hand, society in the Vedic Age was characterized by the varna system, which divided people into four main classes—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—each with distinct roles and responsibilities.
2. Imagine you are transported in the Sangam Age by a time-machine. Describe the position of women, as seen by you.
Answer: The status of women in the Sangam society was not equal to that of men. Women were generally expected to be dutiful housewives, looking after their husbands and children. However, there were also female ascetics belonging to Buddhist or Jain traditions. Although women had certain freedoms and there were a number of women poets, they still held a secondary position in society compared to men.
3. Find out structures similar to megaliths or commemorative memorials in other civilisations of the world. List the similarities and dissimilarities between the megaliths and these structures.
Answer: Structures similar to megaliths can be found in various civilizations such as the Stonehenge in England, the Pyramids in Egypt, and the Dolmens in Europe. Similarities include their function as burial sites or commemorative monuments and their construction using large stones. Dissimilarities include the more elaborate construction techniques and purposes in civilizations like Egypt, where the pyramids were not only tombs but also symbols of power and religious significance, whereas megaliths were simpler and primarily used for burial or commemoration.
4. Read the plot of the two epics Sillapadikaram and Manimekalai. Compare and contrast the women characters in these two epics with those of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Answer: The women characters in the epics Sillapadikaram and Manimekalai are portrayed with strong moral virtues and are central to the plot. Kannagi, in Sillapadikaram, is depicted as a chaste and devoted wife who seeks justice for her wronged husband. Manimekalai is portrayed as a spiritual and compassionate woman who renounces worldly life for a higher purpose. In contrast, the women characters in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, such as Sita and Draupadi, are also portrayed with strength and virtue but within a different cultural and narrative framework. Sita is the ideal wife, embodying loyalty and sacrifice, while Draupadi is portrayed as a strong and assertive character who challenges the norms of her time. The women in the Sangam epics are more focused on personal virtue and spiritual goals, whereas in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, their roles are deeply intertwined with the dharma and politics of the time.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. During which period did the Sangam gatherings of poets and bards take place?
A. Between first century BC and second century AD
B. Between first century AD and third century AD
C. Between second century BC and first century AD
D. Between third century BC and second century BC
Answer: A. Between first century BC and second century AD
26. Which Sangam poet played the role of a diplomat in the court of Adhiyaman?
A. Avvaiyar
B. Kapilar
C. Mangudi Maruthanar
D. Pari
Answer: A. Avvaiyar
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What does the word ‘Sangam’ mean?
Answer: Assembly or association.
33. Describe the various social groups in the Sangam Age and their modes of livelihood as mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Answer: The Sangam literature describes a diverse society during the Sangam Age, where different social groups were engaged in various modes of livelihood based on the geography and resources of their regions. The society was divided into five tinais or geographical divisions:
- Kurinji (hilly backwoods): Inhabitants were primarily hunters and gatherers.
- Palai (parched zones): People in these areas lived by plunder and cattle lifting due to the harsh environment.
- Mullai (pastoral tract): This region supported subsistence through shifting agriculture and animal husbandry.
- Marutam (wetland): The wetland inhabitants focused on plough agriculture, growing crops like rice and other essential grains.
- Neital (littoral land): Inhabitants here were dependent on fishing and salt extraction from the coastal areas.
In addition to these primary groups, the literature also references full-time craftsmen like goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and potters, who contributed to the economic activities of the time. These social groups adapted to their environments and engaged in activities that best suited the natural resources available to them, ensuring the survival and prosperity of their communities.
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.
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