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Introduction
The Indus Valley civilization, dating back almost 5,000 years, was one of the earliest urban societies in the world. It’s fascinating to think that this civilization’s remains are still around today, with its rich history spanning over several millennia. While the civilization’s script remains a mystery, archaeologists have been able to piece together a lot about its cities, architecture, technology, trade, economy, and art through careful study of the ruins of important urban centers such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kot Diji, Lothal, Kalibangan, Ganweriwala, Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira.
Interestingly, the discovery of Harappa was accidental. It happened during the construction of the Lahore to Multan railway in 1856, when the British needed ballast and found millions of finely baked bricks from Harappa. The mounds that stood 14 to 18 meters above the fields were finally noticed in 1872, and it was only in 1920-21 that the discovery of bricks of an unknown type at Mohenjodaro led to the identification of the ancient civilization. The remains of the civilization were later discovered at Harappa by R.B. Daya Ram Sahni, and Sir John Marshall, the Director General of Archaeological Survey of India, personally took up the excavation work, announcing in 1924 that a rich and highly developed civilization had flourished in the Indus Valley around 5000 years ago.
While Sir John Marshall’s excavation methods were flawed, leading to the loss of some valuable information, archaeologists from many countries have been working jointly at both Harappa and Mohenjodaro since the 1980s. Using modern research techniques, including surface exploration, they are studying every scrap of available evidence, hoping to uncover more information about this fascinating civilization. The remains of the civilization can be found in the ruins of various cities, including Mohenjodaro, Amri, Kot Diji, and Harappa, and it’s exciting to think that there may be even more discoveries to come in the future.
Video tutorial
Textual questions and answers
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. Why is Indus Valley Civilisation called the Harappan Civilisation?
Answer: The Indus Valley Civilisation is called the Harappan Civilisation because the first site of this civilisation to be excavated was Harappa, located in the Sahiwal district of Punjab, Pakistan.
2. Who was Sir John Marshall? What was his contribution?
Answer: Sir John Marshall was the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His contribution includes announcing the existence of the Indus Valley Civilisation in 1924 and preserving the site of Harappa in 1924-25.
3. Give the names of the archaeologists who made excavations at Harappa between 1920-25.
Answer: Daya Ram Sahni, R.D. Banerji, Sir John Marshall and M.S. Vats.
4. Where is Lothal? What was discovered here?
Answer: Lothal is located in Gujarat, India. A dockyard was discovered here, indicating that Lothal was a major trading centre of the Harappan culture.
5. What do you know about the city of Kot Diji?
Answer: Kot Diji is located 40 km east of Mohenjodaro on the left bank of the Indus River. It is one of the earliest known fortified cities with a wall four or five meters high and provides evidence of pre-Harappan culture.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the basis on which archaeologists identified the centres of crafts production in the Harappan culture.
Answer: The archaeologists generally look for raw material for making artefacts such as stones, nodules, whole shells, copper ore, etc., and tools, unfinished objects, rejects and waste material at the places of production. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of the craft work. Apart from some specialised centres of craft production, this work was undertaken in large cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
2. How have historians provided new insight into the subsistence strategies of the Harappan culture?
Answer: The Early Harappan Culture and the Mature Harappan cultures used some common food articles. They took very simple food. They ate a wide range of plant products such as wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea and sesame. In Gujarat, millets were found at many sites. Besides vegetables, fruits, dates and milk were included in their food. The animals bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo and pig. Bones of fish and fowl have also been found. The studies of the zoo-archaeologists indicate that the people domesticated these animals. They ate animal products like mutton, beef, fish and eggs. Bones of wild animals like boar, deer and gharial have also been found. But it is not clear whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from some other hunting communities.
3. “Many reconstructions of the Harappan religion have been done on the basis of inference.” Confirm the statement with examples.
Answer: It is difficult to say anything with certainty about the religious beliefs of the Indus Valley people. No temples or any positive religious material has been discovered in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. However, some of the seals, sealings, figurines and stone images found in the ruins of the cities help in forming some ideas about the religious beliefs and practices of the people. It is probable that they had developed a complex religion based on the worship of “Mother Goddess” and animals.
4. “The most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was the development of domestic architecture.” Substantiate the statement.
Answer: The study of the remains unearthed during the excavations shows that the buildings were constructed throughout the city according to some definite plans. Dr. Pusalkar classifies the buildings into three heads: (a) dwelling houses or residential buildings; (b) large buildings; and (c) public baths. Residential houses of Mohenjodaro are of different sizes varying from a small house of two rooms to a palatial building which is 220 ft. by 115 ft. Each house had its well and drainage system. All houses are built of bricks which are usually well burnt and of good quality.
5. “There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in the Harappan society.” In light of this statement, explain whether there may have been rulers to rule over the Harappan society.
Answer: Some scholars have labelled a stone statue as the “priest king” as they were familiar with the Mesopotamian civilisation and its “priest kings” and had found parallels in the Indus region. But we do not know whether the priest kings who performed religious ceremonies also held political power. However, most of the scholars opine that the Harappans had a highly centralised administration. The provinces of Sindh, Punjab, East Baluchistan and Kathiawar were connected and were under the control of a single administration. This is evident from the uniformity of culture displayed by the pattern of planning and construction. They had similar script, same type of buildings, similar weights and measures. Some scholars are of the opinion that the Indus Valley was a big empire whose two important centres were Mohenjodaro and Harappa. For administrative purposes, Harappa governed the northern portion and Mohenjodaro, the southern portion. It seems that there was an organisation like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the contributions of various archaeologists from 1875 till 1950 in discovering the Harappan civilization.
Answer: The story of the discovery of Harappa, which lay buried for many centuries, is interesting. In 1856, when the British were building the Lahore to Multan railway, they needed ballast and found it in the form of finely baked bricks of Harappa, millions of them. It was only in 1872 that notice was taken of the mounds which stood 14 to 18 meters above the level of the fields. In 1920-21, R.D. Banerji, in the course of excavation work on a Buddhist Stupa that stood at Mohenjodaro in Sindh (now in Pakistan), discovered bricks of an unknown type which led to the identification of this ancient civilisation in Indian history. About the same time, R.B. Daya Ram Sahni discovered similar remains at Harappa in Montgomery district (now called Sahiwal, Pakistan). Later on, Sir John Marshall, the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, personally took up this work and announced in 1924 that about 5000 years ago, a rich and highly developed civilisation flourished in the valley of the Indus. It goes to the credit of Sir John Marshall that the site was preserved in 1924-25.
2. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by the rulers in Harappan society.
Answer: We have little knowledge about the nature of political organisation or the history of the rulers of the Indus valley people. Some archaeologists have labelled a large building found at Mohenjodaro as a palace, but no spectacular finds have been associated with it. Some scholars have labelled a stone statue as the “priest king” as they were familiar with the Mesopotamian civilisation and its “priest kings” and had found parallels in the Indus region. But we do not know whether the priest kings who performed religious ceremonies also held political power. However, most scholars opine that the Harappans had a highly centralised administration. The provinces of Sindh, Punjab, East Baluchistan and Kathiawar were connected and were under the control of a single administration. This is evident from the uniformity of culture displayed by the pattern of planning and construction. They had similar script, the same type of buildings, similar weights and measures. Some scholars are of the opinion that the Indus Valley was a big empire whose two important centres were Mohenjodaro and Harappa. For administrative purposes, Harappa governed the northern portion and Mohenjodaro, the southern portion. It seems that there was an organisation like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people. But there is no definite proof.
3. Describe the history of early urban centres of the Harappan Civilisation.
Answer: Urbanisation was achieved by the Harappan civilisation in the 3rd millennium BC on the Indian subcontinent. It was an important breakthrough from the earlier hunting-gathering and self-sufficient village socio-economic organisations. In between the southern metropolis of Mohenjodaro and the northern capital of the Indus Valley, Harappa, traces of many flourishing cities dating back four to five thousand years are found. One of these is Amri, also on the right bank of Indus some 160 km south of Mohenjodaro, which French archaeologist J.M. Casal puts as 4000 years old. He also traced cities dating back to 2500 BC in the Kalat Division of Baluchistan, Nindowai, and Ornach. But Kot Diji, 40 km east of Mohenjodaro on the left bank of Indus, is one of the earliest known fortified cities with a wall four or five meters high. It was a startling discovery in the late fifties of the twentieth century, which gave new evidence of pre-Harappan culture. Harappa city is similar in planning to Mohenjodaro, and it seems that it had almost everything for comfortable living and a well-disciplined life. Objects found at Harappa are an unending variety of pottery, jewellery, ornaments, human and animal figurines, stone vessels, copper, bronze and silver utensils, metal objects, beads, household implements, and, of course, seals. Like Kot Diji, it too has a fortification wall with watch towers and bastions. Harappa’s layout shows a lofty fortified citadel and low-lying city with public and private buildings, worker’s colonies, work platforms, and furnaces.
4. Describe the causes of decay and disappearance of the Harappan Civilisation. What is the legacy of this civilisation?
Answer: The scholars have no definite answer to the puzzle of how this remarkable civilisation was destroyed. This widespread civilisation could neither come to an abrupt end nor could it be destroyed by only one cause. Dr. B.G. Gokhle is of the view that “nature and man must have combined to cause its complete destruction.” According to Sir John Marshall, the Indus Valley Civilisation collapsed about a thousand years before the coming of the Aryans. But recent researches indicate that this culture must have continued up to 800 BC. Even after its important centres were ruined, the civilisation continued and gradually mixed up with the Vedic culture. The following causes have been put forward for the decay and disappearance of this magnificent culture:
(1) Floods: The vagaries of Indus were largely responsible for the destruction of the Indus Valley cities. Frequent occurrence of floods in the Indus might have submerged vast territories and thus buried them under thick layers of mud.
(2) Famines: It is possible that the rainfall in Sindh, which might have been more plentiful than it is now, could have become scanty about 2000 BC and Sindh might have become a desert. As a result, the people might have migrated to other areas.
(3) Earthquakes: It is also possible that earthquakes might have brought havoc in the Indus valley. Vast areas might have been split, thus, destroying the cities.
(4) Changes in the course of the river Indus: Abrupt changes in the course of the Indus river might have washed away large areas, thus, leading to the destruction of the civilisation.
(5) Evidence of Invasions of the Aryans: Probably, the invasions of the Aryans brought about the end of the flourishing Indus civilisation because soon after the Harappan culture vanished, a warrior race called the Aryans fell upon India. The invaders came through the Himalayas, destroyed the culture, and subjugated the people of the Indus Valley. There are some references to this effect in the Vedic Mantras. But the theory is not supported by any convincing archaeological evidence.
(6) End of the Harappan State: Some archaeologists are of the view that the Harappan culture came to an end. This contributed to the collapse of the entire civilisation. This is evident from the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights, and the decline and abandonment of cities.
The Legacy of the Harappan Civilisation: Although the Indus cities disappeared probably as a result of plagues, floods, or invasions, yet the culture and the civilisation of the Indus did not wholly collapse. In the course of time, the Aryans borrowed some features of the Indus culture. Some fundamental aspects of Hinduism of today may be traced to those remote days. In addition to the worship of Shiva and Shakti, the Indus people worshipped animals, rivers, and trees. All these practices are prevalent in India even today. “There is enough in the fragments we have recovered,” says Sir John Marshall, “to demonstrate that this religion of the Indus people was the lineal progenitor of Hinduism.”
5. Explain the distinctive features of the residential buildings of Mohenjodaro.
Answer: The study of the remains unearthed during the excavations shows that the buildings were constructed throughout the city according to some definite plans. Dr. Pusalkar classifies the buildings into three heads: (a) dwelling houses or residential buildings; (b) large buildings; and (c) public baths. Dwelling Houses: Residential houses of Mohenjodaro are of different sizes, varying from a small house of two rooms to a palatial building which is 220 ft. by 115 ft. Each house had its well and drainage system. All houses are built of bricks which are usually well burnt and of good quality. Dr. Pulaskar observes, “Even at the lowest levels we find well-made bricks which would be a credit even to modern brick-makers.” Floors of the houses are earthen or kutcha. The roofs were flat and made of wood or thatched reed matting. The doors of the houses vary from 3 to 7 ft. in breadth. We cannot know how the doors or windows were fixed as no wooden material has survived these five thousand years. Many big dwelling houses had two or more storeys as indicated by marks of beams in the walls and the staircases of the houses. They were furnished with paved floors and courtyard doors, windows, and narrow stairways. The pottery jars were used as cupboards and there were wooden shelves also. In one corner of this house, there was a kitchen, though most of the cooking was done in the courtyard.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which is the most antiquated object of the Indus civilisation?
A. Harappan jewellery B. Harappan seal C. Harappan weapons D. Harappan houses
Answer: B. Harappan seal
2. In the Indus civilisation, the mud plows are found in which sites?
A. Kalibangan B. Harappa C. Lothal D. Mohenjodaro
Answer: A. Kalibangan
3. Piece of harvested land is found in which site?
A. Banawali B. Lothal C. Harappa D. Mohenjodaro
Answer: A. Banawali
4. Rare commodities made from expensive material were seen in:
A. Mohenjodaro and Harappa B. Lothal and Mohenjodaro C. Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan D. Harappa and Lothal
Answer: A. Mohenjodaro and Harappa
5. The region of Harappa, ‘Meluha’ known in Mesopotamia as?
A. Region of Kings B. Region of farmers C. Region of craftsman D. Seafarers
Answer: D. Seafarers
Competency-based questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Match the following and select the correct option.
| List-I (Harappan Site) | List-II (Famous for) |
|---|---|
| I. Lothal | A. Specialised centres for making shell objects |
| II. Kalibangan | B. Near sources of carnelian |
| III. Dholavira | C. Evidence of ploughed field found |
| IV. Nageshwar | D. Water reservoirs found. |
- (a) I-B, II-C, III-D, IV-A
- (b) I-A, II-D, III-C, IV-B
- (c) I-C, II-B, III-D, IV-A
- (d) I-D, II-A, III-B, IV-C
Answer: Correct option: (d)
2. Which of the following material were found at craft production centres in Harappan civilisation?
(i) Carnelian (ii) Jasper (iii) Crystal (iv) Quartz
A. (i), (ii) (iii) and (iv) B. (iii) and (iv) C. (ii), (iii) and (iv) D. (i) and (ii)
Answer: A. (i), (ii) (iii) and (iv)
3. “The domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro along the ground level meant for privacy of the residents.” Identify which of the following statements prove it.
(i) Houses were centred on a courtyard. (ii) There were no windows in the walls. (iii) The main entrance did not give direct view. (iv) Many houses had wells often in room for passers by.
A. (i) and (ii) B. (ii) and (iv) C. (iii) and (iv) D. (i) and (iv)
Answer: A. (i) and (ii)
4. Read the following information and identify the practitioners of a sub-discipline of archaeology.
They are the specialists in ancient animal remains. They tried to study and understand the Harappans subsistence strategies through animal bones and found at Harappan sites and indicated that Harappan domesticated few animals.
A. Archaeo-Botanist B. Archaeo-Zoologist C. Geo-Archaeologists D. Anthropologists
Answer: B. Archaeo-Zoologist
Assertion-Reason Questions
1. Assertion (A): The humpless bull found in the Indus Valley civilisation was called a unicorn. Its horns were adjacent and protruded forward in the picture inscribed on the seals. Perhaps, it was an imaginary animal.
Reason (R): The hump animals in the seals have received less priority than the humpless animals.
Answer: (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but R is not the correct explanation of (A).
2. Assertion (A): Many items of the Indus Valley civilisation were found in Sumeria.
Reason (R): Sumeria appears to have had trade relations with the Indus Valley.
Answer: (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Case-based Questions
1. Read the following excerpt carefully and answer the questions that follow:
Evidence of an “invasion”
Deadman Lane is a narrow alley, varying from 3 to 6 feet in width…. At the point where the lane turns westward, part of a skull and the bones of the thorax and upper arm of an adult were discovered, all in a veryfriable condition, at a depth of 4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its backdiagonally across the lane.Fifteen inchesto the west were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane owes its name.
From John Marshall, Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilisation,1931.
i. Why is the lane called the Deadman Lane?
Answer: The lane is called the Deadman Lane because at the point where the lane turns westward, part of a skull and the bones of the thorax and upper arm of an adult were discovered, all in a very friable condition, at a depth of 4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across the lane. Fifteen inches to the west were a few fragments of a tiny skull.
ii. State the conclusions that scholars and archaeologists draw from this information?
Answer: Scholars and archaeologists conclude that these remains are the evidence of an “invasion” because the lane owes its name to these remains found there.
iii. Give reasons to justify that the earlier interpretations can sometimes be reversed?
Answer: Earlier interpretations can sometimes be reversed because new evidence or re-evaluation of existing evidence can provide a different perspective. This shows that interpretations are not fixed and can change with new discoveries or insights.
2. Read the following case carefully and answer the following questions by choosing the most appropriate option.
Archaeological sites are formed through the production, use, and discarding of materials and structures. When people continue to live in the same place, their constant use and reuse of the landscape results in the build-up of occupational debris, called a mound. Brief or permanent abandonment results in the alteration of the landscape by wind or water activity and erosion. Occupations are detected by traces of ancient materials found in layers, which differ from one another in colour, texture, and the artefacts that are found in them. Abandonment or desertions, what are called “sterile layers,” can be identified by the absence of such traces. Generally, the lowest layers are the oldest, and the highest are the most recent. The study of these layers is called stratigraphy. Artefacts found in layers can be assigned to specific cultural periods and can thus provide the cultural sequence for a site.
i. Which of the following is a feature of a Mound?
A. Occupational debris
B. Continuous inhabitation
C. Land reclamation
D. All of the Above
Answer: A. Occupational debris
ii. Which of the following is an indication of sterile layers?
A. Absence of occupational traces
B. Presence of inhabitation
C. Shards of pottery
D. Bricks
Answer: A. Absence of occupational traces
iii. Assertion (A): The lowest layers in a site are the oldest and the highest ones are the most recent. Reason (R): Continued occupation or abandonment of a site over time leads to the formation of a new layer above the old.
A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
B. Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
C. (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct.
D. (R) is incorrect but (A) is correct.
Answer: A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
iv. Which of the following is the correct definition of stratigraphy?
A. Study of soil/rock layers in an archaeological site
B. Study of texts produced within a particular region
C. Study of artifacts
D. Study of local folklore about an archaeological site
Answer: A. Study of soil/rock layers in an archaeological site
v. How are different cultural periods specified?
A. Through different kingdoms
B. Through the script
C. Through layers of occupation
D. Through pottery styles
Answer: C. Through layers of occupation
vi. How were the occupations of Harappan people detected?
A. Through scriptures
B. Through artefacts found in layers
C. Both (a) and (b)
D. None of the above
Answer: B. Through artefacts found in layers
Additional/extra questions and answers
1. What is the Indus valley civilization?
Answer: The Indus valley civilization was one of the earliest urban societies in the world, which existed in the great Indus valley of India. It is the oldest living civilization in the world, with a record of progress spread over almost five thousand years.
95. What are the possible causes of the decay and disappearance of the Harappan civilization?
Answer: The possible causes of the decay and disappearance of the Harappan civilization are:
- Floods that submerged vast territories and buried them under thick layers of mud
- Famines that may have resulted from changes in rainfall patterns in Sindh
- Earthquakes that may have destroyed vast areas of the Indus valley
- Changes in the course of the Indus river that may have washed away large areas
- The end of the Harappan state, which may have contributed to the collapse of the entire civilization
- Invasions of the Aryans, which is a theory that is not supported by any convincing archaeological evidence.
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