Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
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Summary
The chapter explores the ideas and beliefs that shaped early Indian thought, focusing on the development of Buddhism. It begins with the stupa at Sanchi, one of the best-preserved monuments, and how it survived due to efforts by local rulers like Shahjehan Begum. In the 19th century, European scholars showed interest in the site, but preservation efforts ensured that the stupa remained in India.
It then moves to the period around the first millennium BCE, a time when many thinkers across the world, including Buddha and Mahavira, questioned existing traditions. In India, the Vedic tradition revolved around sacrifices to gods like Agni and Indra. Over time, some people began questioning these rituals, leading to new philosophical discussions. The Upanishads explored ideas about life, death, and the soul. Meanwhile, Buddhist texts record many debates among teachers, each trying to explain the nature of existence.
Jainism, which existed before Mahavira, taught that all living things, including rocks and water, had life. Jain teachings promoted non-violence, renunciation, and asceticism. Mahavira’s followers recorded his teachings, emphasizing discipline and self-control. Jain monks and nuns took vows to avoid harming any creature, speaking falsely, or accumulating wealth.
Buddhism emerged as another important tradition. Siddhartha Gautama, born into a royal family, left his palace after seeing suffering in the world. He meditated and found enlightenment, becoming the Buddha. He taught that suffering was part of life but could be overcome by following the Middle Path—avoiding both extreme luxury and severe hardship. His teachings focused on morality and self-discipline rather than religious rituals.
Buddhism spread through monks and nuns who formed a community called the sangha. Though initially restricted to men, later, women were also allowed to join. The sangha welcomed people from all backgrounds, treating them as equals. The teachings of the Buddha were compiled in texts called the Tipitaka and spread to different regions over time.
Stupas, which contained relics of the Buddha, became important religious sites. Rulers, merchants, and common people contributed to their construction. The Sanchi stupa is a fine example, with its detailed carvings and symbolic designs. Images of the Buddha were often represented through symbols like footprints, the Bodhi tree, or the wheel.
Over time, new religious traditions emerged. Mahayana Buddhism introduced the idea of bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who delayed their own liberation to help others. Hindu traditions like Vaishnavism and Shaivism also grew, with temples and sculptures depicting various deities.
The chapter highlights how religious beliefs evolved through interactions, debates, and artistic expressions that continue to shape Indian culture today.
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Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: Yes, the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers were different from those of the fatalists and materialists. The Upanishadic thinkers were concerned with understanding and expressing the nature of the ultimate reality, questioning concepts like rebirth and the significance of the sacrificial tradition. They explored whether there was a single ultimate reality and debated the meaning of life and the possibility of life after death. In contrast, fatalists, such as the Ajivikas, believed that everything was predetermined and unchangeable, while materialists, like the Lokayatas, denied the existence of an afterlife and considered human existence purely physical. These differences highlight the philosophical diversity of the time.
2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.
Answer: The basic philosophy of the Jainas was already in existence in north India before the birth of Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira, in the sixth century BCE. According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira was preceded by 23 other teachers or tirthankaras – literally, those who guide men and women across the river of existence.
The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks, and water have life. Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants, and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy. The principle of ahimsa, emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark on Indian thinking as a whole. According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing, and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.
3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.
Answer: The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site. John Marshall dedicated his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She funded the museum that was built there as well as the guesthouse where he lived and wrote the volumes. She also funded the publication of the volumes. If the stupa complex has survived, it is in no small measure due to wise decisions and good luck in escaping the eyes of railway contractors, builders, and those looking for finds to carry away to the museums of Europe.
4. Read this short inscription and answer:
In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.
(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?
Answer: In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day.
(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
Answer: A Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati.
(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?
Answer: The sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, together with her father and mother.
(d) What Buddhist text did she know?
Answer: The Tipitaka.
(e) From whom did she learn this text?
Answer: The bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka.
5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?
Answer: Men and women joined the sangha for various reasons. Many were drawn to the teachings of the Buddha, which emphasized individual effort and righteous action as a means to attain liberation from suffering. The sangha provided an opportunity to renounce worldly life and seek spiritual enlightenment. It was open to people from different social backgrounds, including kings, wealthy men, workers, slaves, and craftspeople, offering them a sense of equality. Women were initially not allowed but later admitted through the efforts of Ananda, one of the Buddha’s disciples. The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman to be ordained. Many women joined to escape social constraints and seek spiritual growth, eventually becoming respected teachers of dhamma. The internal functioning of the sangha was based on discussions and consensus, making it an inclusive space for spiritual practice.
Short essay-type answers
1. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?
Answer: Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places associated with the Buddha’s life—where he was born (Lumbini), where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where he gave his first sermon (Sarnath), and where he attained nibbana (Kusinagara). Gradually, each of these places came to be regarded as sacred. We know that about 200 years after the time of the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark the fact that he had visited the place.
There were other places too that were regarded as sacred. This was because relics of the Buddha, such as his bodily remains or objects used by him, were buried there. These were mounds known as stupas. The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated with Buddhism. Since they contained relics regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism. According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE, a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath, had been built.
Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form—instead, they showed his presence through symbols. The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha, and the stupa was meant to represent the Mahaparinibbana. Another frequently used symbol was the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath. As is obvious, such sculptures cannot be understood literally—for instance, the tree does not stand simply for a tree, but symbolizes an event in the life of the Buddha. In order to understand such symbols, historians have to familiarize themselves with the traditions of those who produced these works of art.
Art historians had to acquire familiarity with hagiographies of the Buddha in order to understand Buddhist sculpture. According to hagiographies, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Other sculptures at Sanchi were perhaps not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. These include beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. Initially, scholars were a bit intrigued about this image, which seemed to have little to do with renunciation. However, after examining other literary traditions, they realized that it could be a representation of what is described in Sanskrit as a shalabhanjika. According to popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the decoration of the stupa. The shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices, and ideas.
There are other images as well. For instance, some of the finest depictions of animals are found there. These animals include elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle. While the Jatakas contain several animal stories that are depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that many of these animals were carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers. Also, animals were often used as symbols of human attributes. Elephants, for example, were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
Another motif is that of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which seem to be sprinkling water on her as if performing an abhisheka or consecration. While some historians identify the figure as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi—literally, the goddess of good fortune—who is associated with elephants. It is also possible that devotees who saw these sculptures identified the figure with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.
The serpent, which is found on several pillars, seems to be derived from popular traditions, which were not always recorded in texts. Interestingly, one of the earliest modern art historians, James Fergusson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent worship. He was not familiar with Buddhist literature—most of which had not yet been translated—and arrived at this conclusion by studying only the images on their own.
Thus, Buddhist literature is crucial in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi because it helps in interpreting the symbolism, identifying narratives, and providing historical context for the art found at the site.
7. Figs. 4.32 and 4.33 are two scenes from Sanchi. Describe what you see in each of them, focusing on the architecture, plants and animals, and the activities. Identify which one shows a rural scene and which an urban scene, giving reasons for your answer.
Answer: Fig. 4.32 represents a rural scene. The architecture in this image consists of small huts with simple openings, indicating a village setting. Various animals, including bulls or cows, can be seen, which suggests an agrarian lifestyle. The presence of trees and plants reinforces the natural environment. The figures in the image appear to be engaged in activities such as carrying loads, tending to animals, or interacting with each other, which highlights the agricultural and pastoral nature of the scene.
Fig. 4.33 illustrates an urban scene. The architecture is more sophisticated, featuring a multi-tiered structure with rows of pillars and decorative elements, indicative of a developed town or city. The human figures in the image are involved in various social interactions, possibly representing merchants, scholars, or officials in discussion. The structured arrangement of spaces and activities suggests an organized urban environment, likely a market or public space.
Thus, Fig. 4.32 is a rural scene, characterized by simple huts, animals, and agrarian activities, while Fig. 4.33 is an urban scene, identifiable by its architectural complexity, structured spaces, and depictions of social interactions. These sculptures from Sanchi offer valuable insights into the coexistence of rural and urban life in ancient India.
8. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer: The development of Vaishnavism and Shaivism led to significant advancements in sculpture and architecture. These traditions emphasized the worship of chosen deities, Vishnu and Shiva, respectively, which influenced the construction of temples and artistic representations.
In Vaishnavism, cults developed around various avatars of Vishnu. Ten avatars were recognized, and different regions favored different forms. Sculptures depicting these forms became popular, showcasing Vishnu in various manifestations such as Varaha rescuing the earth goddess. Similarly, Shaivism saw the representation of Shiva in both symbolic and human forms. The linga symbolized Shiva, though he was also depicted with multiple arms, adorned with symbolic ornaments and weapons.
To house these images, the first temples were built. The earliest temples were small square structures called garbhagriha, with a single doorway for worshippers. Over time, these temples evolved to include a shikhara (tower) above the central shrine, as well as elaborate walls and gateways adorned with intricate carvings.
Some temples were also carved out of rocks, continuing an earlier tradition. Notable examples include the Kailashnatha temple at Ellora, which was carved out of a single rock. This architectural marvel showcased the skill and craftsmanship of the time.
The Puranas, compiled by Brahmanas, played a key role in consolidating religious traditions. They contained stories of gods and goddesses, helping to spread and standardize religious beliefs. These texts were written in simple Sanskrit and were meant to be accessible to all, including those who did not have access to Vedic learning.
The interaction between priests, merchants, and ordinary people contributed to the evolution of temple architecture and sculpture. For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in the Mathura region, and his worship spread across India, influencing artistic representations and temple construction.
Thus, the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism resulted in the creation of grand temples, intricate sculptures, and a rich artistic tradition that reflected the deep devotion and religious beliefs of the people.
9. Discuss how and why stupas were built.
Answer: Stupas were built as sacred structures associated with Buddhism. The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be closely linked with Buddhism. These structures were built to enshrine relics of the Buddha, such as his bodily remains or objects used by him. Because these relics were considered sacred, the entire stupa was venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
According to the Buddhist text Ashokavadana, Emperor Ashoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE, a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath, had been built.
The construction of stupas was made possible through donations recorded in inscriptions found on their railings and pillars. Some of these donations were made by kings, such as the Satavahanas, while others came from guilds, such as the ivory workers who financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi. Hundreds of men and women contributed, mentioning their names, occupations, places of origin, and sometimes the names of their relatives. Even monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis) contributed to the construction of these monuments.
The stupa originated as a simple, semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Over time, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods. From the harmika arose a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. A railing surrounded the mound, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings, which resembled bamboo or wooden fences, and the gateways (toranas), which were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the mound in a clockwise direction, keeping the mound to their right, imitating the sun’s course through the sky. Over time, stupas became more elaborately decorated, as seen in the carvings at Amaravati and Shah-ji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar.
The significance of stupas lay not only in their religious function but also in their architectural grandeur, as they became focal points for Buddhist devotion and pilgrimage.
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