Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 11 (first year) History textbook, chapter 1 Writing and City Life which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
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Summary
Mesopotamia was an ancient land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, now part of Iraq. It was one of the earliest places where cities developed. People built large settlements and lived in houses made of mud bricks. The first known language there was Sumerian, later replaced by Akkadian. Writing was an important part of city life. The earliest form of writing, called cuneiform, was used for record-keeping and trade. People wrote on clay tablets using wedge-shaped marks.
Cities in Mesopotamia depended on farming. The rivers flooded and left fertile soil, making it easier to grow crops like wheat and barley. Farmers used irrigation to bring water to their fields. People also raised sheep and goats for food, wool, and milk. Trade was necessary because Mesopotamia did not have many natural resources. People exchanged grain and textiles for metals, wood, and stones from other places.
Temples were at the center of early cities. They were built for gods and became powerful institutions. People offered food and gifts to the gods. Some temples also controlled land and employed workers. Over time, kings took more control. They commanded armies, collected taxes, and built large palaces. They also organized trade and public works, like building canals and city walls.
Mesopotamians believed in many gods. Stories were told about their rulers and heroes. One famous tale is the Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was a mighty king who searched for immortality but realized that his greatest achievement was his city. This story showed how much people valued their cities.
Writing helped manage city life. It was first used to record trade and taxes but later for laws, stories, and learning. Schools trained scribes to read and write. Mathematics and astronomy also developed. Mesopotamians divided time into hours, minutes, and seconds, which we still use today.
One of the great cities was Uruk, which had defensive walls and large buildings. Another city, Mari, was important for trade. It was a meeting place for farmers and herders. Sometimes, there were conflicts over land and water, but people also cooperated.
Later, powerful empires rose in Mesopotamia. The Assyrians built a vast empire and collected many writings in their libraries. The Babylonians built great cities, including Babylon, which became famous for its temples and palaces.
Mesopotamia’s contributions to writing, trade, and governance shaped later civilizations. Its cities, temples, and records give us a glimpse into the world’s earliest urban life.
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Textbook solutions
Answer in Brief
1. Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food production that were the causes of early urbanisation?
Answer: Urbanisation required more than just fertile land and high food production. It was driven by a combination of factors, including trade, manufacturing, specialisation of labour, social organisation, and the development of administrative systems such as writing. The emergence of cities depended on the division of labour, organised trade, storage, transport systems, and social hierarchies that allowed urban centres to function beyond mere agricultural success.
2. Which of the following were necessary conditions and which were the causes of early urbanisation, and which would you say were the outcome of the growth of cities?
(a) highly productive agriculture, (b) water transport, (c) the lack of metal and stone, (d) the division of labour, (e) the use of seals, (f) the military power of kings that made labour compulsory?
Answer: Necessary Conditions for Early Urbanisation:
- Highly productive agriculture
- Water transport
Causes of Early Urbanisation:
- The lack of metal and stone
- The division of labour
Outcome of the Growth of Cities:
- The use of seals
- The military power of kings that made labour compulsory
3. Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?
Answer: Mobile animal herders were not necessarily a threat to town life because herders needed to exchange young animals, cheese, leather, and meat in return for grain, metal tools, etc., and the manure of a penned flock was also of great use to a farmer. Additionally, some herders came in as harvest labourers or hired soldiers and occasionally became prosperous and settled down. In some cases, they gained power and established their own rule, as seen with the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans
4. Why would the early temple have been much like a house?
Answer: The early temple would have been much like a house because “the temple was the house of a god.” Early temples were constructed in brick and, over time, became larger with several rooms around open courtyards. Some of the earliest ones were possibly not unlike the ordinary house. However, temples had outer walls with regular in-and-out intervals, a feature not found in ordinary buildings
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5. Of the new institutions that came into being once city life had begun, which would have depended on the initiative of the king?
Answer: The new institutions that came into being once city life had begun and depended on the initiative of the king included temples, which developed into main urban institutions, and the organisation of trade and writing. Victorious chiefs began to offer precious booty to the gods and beautify the community’s temples. They would send men out to fetch fine stones and metal for the benefit of the god and community and organise the distribution of temple wealth efficiently by accounting for things that came in and went out.
The king had the high status and the authority to command the community. With rulers commanding people to fetch stones or metal ores, to come and make bricks or lay the bricks for a temple, or to go to a distant country to fetch suitable materials, there were also technical advances. Bronze tools came into use for various crafts, architects learned to construct brick columns, and sculptors created remarkable works in imported stone. The potter’s wheel, a technological landmark appropriate to an urban economy, enabled the mass production of pots. The king played a role in all these developments, ensuring the growth and sustenance of urban institutions.
6. What do ancient stories tell us about the civilisation of Mesopotamia?
Answer: Ancient stories tell us about the civilisation of Mesopotamia through various myths and epics. The Old Testament refers to ‘Shimar’, meaning Sumer, as a land of brick-built cities. The Book of Genesis speaks of the Flood meant to destroy all life on earth, with Noah chosen to ensure survival. A strikingly similar story exists in the Mesopotamian tradition, where the principal character was called Ziusudra or Utnapishtim.
The connection between city life, trade, and writing is evident in a long Sumerian epic poem about Enmerkar, one of the earliest rulers of Uruk. The poem states that in the early days, ‘trade was not known’. Enmerkar wanted lapis lazuli and precious metals for the beautification of a city temple and sent his messenger to Aratta. The messenger, exhausted from repeated journeys, mixed up the messages. Enmerkar then ‘formed a clay tablet in his hand, and he wrote the words down’. The ruler of Aratta examined the tablet and was astonished, illustrating how writing was perceived as a sign of the superiority of Mesopotamian urban culture.
The Epic of Gilgamesh, written on twelve tablets, tells the story of Gilgamesh, the ruler of Uruk. After his heroic friend died, he sought the secret of immortality by crossing the waters that surround the world. Despite his efforts, he failed and returned to Uruk. There, he consoled himself by walking along the city wall, admiring its foundations made of fired bricks. This ending signifies that he took solace in the city his people had built, rather than in the idea of an afterlife.
These stories reflect the civilisation’s emphasis on trade, writing, kingship, and urban pride. They convey how Mesopotamians viewed their cities as centres of culture, administration, and divine power, demonstrating their rich literary and intellectual heritage.
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