Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 12 (Arts) History (Themes in Indian History) chapter 6 “New Architecture: Hampi”. However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.
Summary
The chapter presents a thorough and detailed examination of the history and architecture of the Vijayanagara Empire, a prominent power in South India from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Organized into several sections, the chapter delves into various aspects of the empire, providing a rich understanding of its magnificence and significance in the context of South Indian history.
The narrative begins with the captivating discovery of Hampi, the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, by two 19th-century British officials who were astonished by the city’s magnificent ruins. The chapter also highlights the cultural significance of rituals associated with the city, such as the Mahanavami Dibba festival, offering insights into the customs and traditions of the empire.
Detailed descriptions of the Vitthala temple at Hampi are provided, including its architectural features and the exquisite frescoes that decorate its walls. The chapter delves into the architectural traditions that influenced Vijayanagara architects and how they ingeniously adapted and transformed these styles to create distinctive and iconic structures. Additionally, the chapter examines the city layout of Vijayanagara, offering insights into the lives of its ordinary citizens, the various buildings, and the palaces constructed by the rulers. It provides a glimpse into the daily lives, living conditions, and social dynamics of the people who once resided in this remarkable city.
Furthermore, the chapter investigates the impressive fortifications of the Vijayanagara Empire, describing how they captivated the Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak during the 15th century. It also discusses the expansion and consolidation policies of Krishnadeva Raya, one of the empire’s most celebrated rulers, delving into his strategies and accomplishments during his reign.
The chapter explores the Nayakas, successors of the Vijayanagara rulers, and their continuation of the building traditions established by their predecessors. It also examines the reasons why the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted earlier traditions of spiritual architecture and how they integrated these elements into their own constructions.
Textual questions and answers
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. Give one feature of Vijaynagar style of temple architecture.
Answer: The Vijayanagar style of temple architecture is characterised by strong enclosures, usually with a sanctum, porch, garbhagriha, antarala, mandapa, and a rangamandapa.
2. What is the style of the structure of king’s court at Vijaynagar?
Answer: The king’s court at Vijayanagar is known for its impressive platforms such as the audience hall and the Mahanavami Dibba, surrounded by high double walls.
3. What do you know about the granite chariot of the Sun god outside the Vitthal temple at Hampi?
Answer: The granite chariot of the Sun god outside the Vitthal temple at Hampi is an iconic stone chariot representing the rich architectural heritage of the Vijayanagar Empire.
4. Name the means of irrigation in the kingdom of Vijaynagar.
Answer: The means of irrigation in the kingdom of Vijaynagar included numerous canals, tanks, water reservoir embankments, check dams, erosion control walls, and wells.
5. What was the main purpose of building forts at Vijaynagar?
Answer: The main purpose of building forts at Vijaynagar was to provide protection against invasions and symbolize the authority of the rulers.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the Vijayanagara or Hampi style of architecture.
Answer: The Vijayanagara architecture (Hampi architecture) of the period (1336-1565) was a unique building style evolved by the imperial Vijayanagara empire. It ruled the whole of South India from its capital city of Vijayanagara on the Tungabhadra River in Karnataka. The Vijayanagara rulers built a number of temples, monuments, palaces, and other structures over South India, with the largest concentration located at its capital. The monuments in and around Hampi, in the Vijayanagara principality, are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Besides building new temples, the Vijayanagara empire added new structures and made modifications to hundreds of existing temples across South India. Some structures at Vijayanagara are from pre-Vijayanagara period. The Mahakuta temples are from the Western Chalukya era. The region around here had been a popular place of worship for centuries before the Vijayanagara period with earliest records dating from AD 689 when it was known as Pampa Tirtha after the local river Goddess Pampa.
The Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly, and civic architectures. It combines Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles, characterized by a return to the simplistic and serene art. Local hard granite was preferred in the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures. Artists employed plaster to give rough surfaces a smooth finish and then painted them with lively colors.
Hampi temples like Hazara Rama, Balakrishna, and Virupaksha are usually surrounded by strong enclosures. Medium-sized temples have a sanctum, a hall, and a porch. Larger temples have more complex structures with large halls supported by numerous pillars, often adorned with carvings from Hindu mythology.
2. “Mahanavami Dibba was a typical structure of Vijaynagara.” Justify the statement.
Answer: The Mahanavami Dibba is a significant structure within the Vijayanagara Empire, highlighting its architectural and cultural grandeur. Located in the Royal Enclosure, it is a large platform rising from a base of about 11,000 square feet to a height of 40 feet. The platform is covered with intricate relief carvings, showcasing the craftsmanship of the period.
The structure served as a stage for the Mahanavami festival, a major annual event marked by various rituals and ceremonies. These included worship of state horses, sacrifices, dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers. The Mahanavami festival was an occasion for the Vijayanagara kings to display their power and prestige, making the Dibba an important symbol of royal authority and cultural identity.
The Mahanavami Dibba’s strategic location on one of the highest points in the city provided an excellent vantage point for the king and his court to view the festivities. This positioning also reinforced the connection between the ruler and the divine, as the height of the platform symbolized the elevated status of the king.
In essence, the Mahanavami Dibba encapsulates the essence of Vijayanagara architecture with its grandeur, detailed carvings, and its role in the socio-political and religious life of the empire. It stands as a testament to the sophisticated urban planning and architectural prowess that defined the Vijayanagara period.
3. What do you know about the temple of Virupaksha?
Answer: The Virupaksha Temple is one of the oldest and most important temples in the Vijayanagara Empire, located in Hampi. It is dedicated to Lord Shiva, known here as Virupaksha, and serves as the guardian deity of the Vijayanagara kings. The temple has a long history, dating back to the 7th century, with significant additions and renovations carried out during the Vijayanagara period.
The temple complex consists of a sanctum, three ante chambers, a pillared hall, and an open pillared hall. It also includes a large temple kitchen, a courtyard, and a few smaller shrines. The entrance of the temple is marked by a towering gopuram, or gateway tower, which is intricately decorated with carvings and sculptures.
Inside the temple, the ceiling of the Ranga Mandapa (the hall preceding the sanctum) is adorned with paintings depicting various scenes from Hindu mythology, including the ten incarnations of Vishnu. The central sanctum houses the main deity, Virupaksha, in the form of a lingam.
The Virupaksha Temple has remained an active site of worship for centuries, surviving the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire and continuing to attract devotees and tourists. Its architectural brilliance, combined with its religious significance, makes it a key monument in understanding the cultural heritage of the Vijayanagara period.
4. Describe the contribution of John Marshall in the Indian archaeology.
Answer: John Marshall was a pioneering figure in Indian archaeology, serving as the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) from 1902 to 1928. His contributions significantly advanced the study and preservation of India’s ancient heritage.
Marshall’s most notable achievement was the discovery and excavation of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Pakistan. This discovery pushed back the known history of Indian civilization by several millennia and provided insights into the sophisticated urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley people.
He also initiated systematic excavations at other significant sites, including Sanchi, Sarnath, and Taxila, revealing important aspects of Buddhist and early Indian history. His work at Sanchi helped in the preservation and restoration of the Great Stupa and other monuments, which are now recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Marshall emphasized the importance of using scientific methods in archaeology, including careful excavation techniques, detailed documentation, and the conservation of artifacts. He also promoted the publication of findings, making archaeological knowledge accessible to both scholars and the general public.
Through his efforts, Marshall laid the foundation for modern archaeological practices in India and left a lasting legacy in the preservation and understanding of the country’s rich historical heritage.
5. Describe the features of the temples built by Vijayanagara rulers.
Answer: The temples built by the Vijayanagara rulers are renowned for their distinct architectural features, which blend the styles of previous South Indian dynasties, such as the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, and Cholas. These temples are characterized by their grandeur, intricate carvings, and complex structures.
A prominent feature of Vijayanagara temples is the towering gopuram, or gateway tower, which serves as the entrance to the temple complex. These gopurams are elaborately decorated with sculptures of deities, mythological figures, and floral motifs, showcasing the artistic skills of the period.
The main sanctum, or garbhagriha, houses the primary deity of the temple and is often surrounded by additional shrines dedicated to other gods and goddesses. The sanctum is usually connected to a pillared hall, or mandapa, which serves as a space for devotees to gather and participate in religious ceremonies.
Many Vijayanagara temples also feature a kalyanamandapa, or ceremonial hall, used for conducting marriages and other significant rituals. These halls are supported by intricately carved pillars, often depicting scenes from Hindu mythology and everyday life.
The use of local hard granite is a distinctive characteristic of Vijayanagara temple architecture. While granite provided durability, artists employed plaster to smooth out the rough surfaces and painted them with vibrant colors, adding to the visual appeal of the temples.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the features of the temples built by Vijayanagara rulers.
Answer: The features of the temples built by Vijayanagara rulers are as follows:
The Vijayanagara style is a combination of Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles. The local hard granite was preferred, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures. To cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and then painted it with lively colours.
The Hampi or Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by strong enclosures like walls or fences. A small shrine usually has a garbhagriha, a sanctum, and a porch. Medium-sized temples have a garbhagriha, a shukanasi which is a small room leading to a large room, an outer mandapa or hall, and a rangamandapa which is a hall supported by pillars. Large temples have halls and a Rayagopuram built with wood, brick, and stucco. The term Raya is added to indicate a gopuram built by Vijayanagara Raya rulers. The top of the gopuram has a Shalashikhara resembling a barrel made to rest on its side, and large life-sized figures of men, women, Gods, and Goddesses adorn the gopuram.
Medium-sized temples also have a closed circumambulatory passage round the sanctum, an open mahamandapa or large hall, a kalyanamandapa or ceremonial hall, and a temple tank for annual ceremonies and festivals. The temples have pillars often with engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs. The horses are shown standing on their hind legs with their forelegs lifted and riders on their backs, standing seven to eight feet tall. The other side of the pillar usually has carvings from Hindu mythology. Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular with mythological themes sculptured on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars around a central pillar shaft, and the bottom supports have engravings of gods and goddesses.
The mandapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four or five feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or yali balustrades. The mandapas are supported by ornate pillars, and the thousand-pillared style with large halls was popular. Large temples also have a separate shrine for female deities.
2. Write an essay on the Vitthala temple at Hampi.
Answer: The Vitthala temple at Hampi is a famous and impressive structure. The traveller Paes described it by stating that the outer side of the gate of the temple up to the roof is covered with copper and gilded, and on each side of the roof on the top are certain great animals that look like tigers, all gilt. As you enter the idol shrine, you perceive from pillar to pillar that it is supported by many little holes in which stand oil lamps that burn every night, numbering between 2500 to 3000.
Even today, although it has been stripped of all but its stone, the Vitthala temple remains an impressive sight. The delicate flowers, fearsome beasts, fluid dancers with sensuous curves, and mesmerising mandalas have lost nothing of what their creators intended to communicate. In some places, remnants of ancient colour still mark the walls.
Outside, in a central courtyard, the granite chariot of the sun god stands proudly. Its stone wheels could still be turned by hand until a few years ago when the authorities sealed them to prevent damage. The architecture of the Vitthala temple strikes a fascinating balance between delicate craftsmanship and awesome presence. It is also noted as an example of a large temple that has a separate shrine for female deities.
3. Identify the rituals and practices associated with the Mahanavami Dibba, a structure in the Royal Centre of Vijananagara Empire.
Answer: The rituals and practices associated with the Mahanavami Dibba were part of a grand festival. The rituals probably coincided with Mahanavami, the great ninth day of the ten-day festival known variously as Dussehra in northern India, Durga Puja in Bengal, and Navaratri in South India. This occasion was used by the Vijayanagara kings to display their prestige, power, and suzerainty.
Many ceremonies were performed on this occasion. These included:
- Worship of the image.
- Worship of the state horse.
- The sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
The occasion was also marked by dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers. A key practice was the ritual presentation before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings. These ceremonies carried deep symbolic meanings.
On the last day of the Mahanavami festival, the king inspected his army and the armies maintained by the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open place. On this occasion, the nayakas brought rich presents for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.
4. What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cult from the various descriptions given about it?
Answer: From the descriptions given, I can form an impression that the ordinary people of Vijayanagara lived in well-organized communities, though direct archaeological evidence of their houses is scarce.
The 16th-century Portuguese traveller Barbosa wrote that the houses of the ordinary people were thatched, but nonetheless well built and arranged according to occupations, in long streets with many open places. This suggests an organized urban layout. For transport, people used boats that were round like baskets, made of cane, and covered with leather, capable of carrying fifteen to twenty people.
Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, pointing to the existence of a variety of cults, perhaps supported by different communities. This suggests a rich and diverse religious life among the common people. For their water needs, they likely used wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks.
However, much about their lives remains unknown. We do not know much about the ordinary men, women, and children who formed the vast majority of the population, what they thought about the magnificent buildings, or if they had access to areas within the king’s Royal Enclosure.
5. Outline the distinctive features of the Virupaksha temple and the Vithala temple in the Royal Centre of Vijayanagara Empire.
Answer: The distinctive features of the Virupaksha temple and the Vithala temple are as follows:
The Virupaksha temple is the shrine of the guardian deity of the Vijayanagara kingdom. The kings of Vijayanagara claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. The temple is the centre of the town of Hampi. At the end of the 18th century, the shrine was thoroughly renovated, which included the repair of the entrance gopuram and the cleaning and decoration of the ceiling paintings inside. A plan of the temple shows it contains a shrine and a tank.
The Vithala temple is another impressive sight. A distinctive feature is the granite chariot of the sun god that stands in its central courtyard. The temple’s architecture is known for its delicate craftsmanship and awesome presence, featuring carvings of delicate flowers, fearsome beasts, and fluid dancers. The traveller Paes described its gate as being covered with copper and gilded, with gilt tiger-like animals on the roof, and thousands of oil lamps lighting the interior. Like other large temples of the period, it also has a separate shrine for female deities.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. When was the Vijayanagar Empire founded?
A. 11th century
B. 12th century
C. 13th century
D. 14th century
Answer: D. 14th century
2. Who founded the Vijayanagar Empire?
A. Harihar
B. Bukka
C. Vijya
D. (a) and (b) both
Answer: D. (a) and (b) both
3. What did the Vijayanagar rulers call themselves?
A. Rai
B. Shah
C. Dev
D. Samrat
Answer: A. Rai
4. Vijayanagar was famous for:
A. Spices
B. Clothes
C. Gem stones
D. All the above
Answer: D. All the above
5. Who was the famous ruler of Vijayanagara?
A. Krishnadevaraya
B. Harihar
C. Krishnadevaraya III
D. Bukka
Answer: A. Krishnadevaraya
Competency-Based Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Identify the dynasty of Vijayanagara with the help of the following information:
i. Harihara and Bukka belonged to this dynasty.
ii. They built Hiriya canal.
iii. It was the first dynasty of Vijayanagara empire.
A. Sangama B. Saluva C. Tuluva D. Aravidu
Answer: A. Sangama
2. Fill in the blank: In the Vijayanagara Empire, Nayakas and Amar Nayakas were regarded as powerful because both ______.
A. owned the most fertile land in the kingdom
B. had friendly relations with the Sultans
C. managed and controlled the temples
D. offered military support to the King
Answer: D. offered military support to the King
3. Why was Vijayanagar named as Hampi? Select the appropriate option from the following:
A. This name was given by Krishanadeva Raya to Vijayanagar.
B. This name was derived by Colin Meckenzie, an antiquarian.
C. This name was derived from the local goddess named Pampadevi.
D. This name was devoted to Vithhla and Virupaksha deities.
Answer: C. This name was derived from the local goddess named Pampadevi.
4. Read the following statements:
A. Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
B. There was peace and prosperity in his empire.
C. He was credited with building some fine temples.
D. He was defeated in the Battle of Rakshi Tangadi.
Which of the above statements are related to Krishnadeva Raya?
A. Only 1
B. 1, 2, and 3
C. 1, 3, and 4
D. 1, 2, and 4
Answer: B. 1, 2, and 3
5. Match the following:
(i) Colin Mackenzie travelled to Vijayanagar (A) 1986
(ii) Hampi was declared a UNESCO site in (B) 1800
(iii) Attack and destruction of Vijayanagara (C) 1509 – 1529
(iv) Reign of Krishnadeva Raya (D) 1565
Options:
A. (i) (C), (ii) (B), (iii) (D), (iv) (A)
B. (i) (A), (ii) (B), (iii) (C), (iv) (D)
C. (i) (B), (ii) (A), (iii) (D), (iv) (C)
D. (i) (D), (ii) (C), (iii) (A), (iv) (B)
Answer: C. (i) (B), (ii) (A), (iii) (D), (iv) (C)
Case-based Questions
1. Read the following passage and give answers to the questions:
Giving the description of Vijaynagar, Domingo writes, “The size of this city I do not write here, because it cannot all be seen from any one spot but I climbed a hill whence I could see a great part of it. I could not see it all because it lies between several ranges of hills. What I saw from thence seemed to me as large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight, there are many groves of trees within it, in the gardens of the houses and many conduits of water which flows into the midst of it and in places there are lakes and the king has close to his palace a palmgroove and other rich fruit bearing trees.”
(i) Why Paes could not write about the size of the city?
Answer: Because it cannot all be seen from any one spot.
(ii) What was his impression about the size of the city?
Answer: It seemed to him as large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight.
(iii) What did he like about the city?
Answer: He liked the many groves of trees within it, in the gardens of the houses and many conduits of water which flows into the midst of it and in places there are lakes and the king has close to his palace a palmgroove and other rich fruit bearing trees.
2. Read the following case given carefully and answer the questions that follows:
Colin Mackenzie Born in 1754, Colin Mackenzie became famous as an engineer, surveyor and cartographer. In 1815 he was appointed the first Surveyor General of India, a post he held till his death in 1821. He embarked on collecting local histories and surveying historic sites in order to better understand India’s past and make governance of the colony easier. He says that “it struggled long under the miseries of bad management … before the South came under the benign influence of the British Government”. By studying Vijayanagara, Mackenzie believed that the East India Company could gain “much useful information on many of these institutions, laws and customs whose influence still prevails among the various Tribes of Natives forming the general mass of the population to this day”.
(i) Who was Colin Mackenzie?
Answer: Colin Mackenzie was an engineer, surveyor, and cartographer who became the first Surveyor General of India in 1815.
(ii) How did Mackenzie try to rediscover the Vijayanagar empire?
Answer: Mackenzie embarked on collecting local histories and surveying historic sites.
(iii) How was the study of the Vijayanagar useful to the East India Company?
Answer: Mackenzie believed that by studying Vijayanagara, the East India Company could gain much useful information on many of these institutions, laws and customs whose influence still prevails among the various Tribes of Natives forming the general mass of the population to this day.
Additional/Extra questions and answers
1. What event crippled the great kingdom of Vijayanagara?
Answer: The decisive battle of Talikota in 1565.
36. What are some unanswered questions about the Vijayanagara Empire that require further research?
Answer: Despite the available information about the Vijayanagara Empire, there are many unanswered questions. For instance, we do not know much about the ordinary men, women, and children who lived in the city and its suburbs, their thoughts about the magnificent buildings, or whether they had access to any areas within the king’s enclosure. We also do not know who possessed the specialized knowledge required for the construction of large projects, who drew the plans for the buildings, and who were the masons, stone cutters, and sculptors who did the actual building work. Questions about the wages given to these workers, the transportation of building materials, and their sources remain unanswered as well. To fully understand these aspects of the Vijayanagara Empire, more information needs to be gathered through continued research and archaeological exploration.
Additional/extra MCQs
1. In which year was the Battle of Talikota fought?
A. 1526 B. 1565 C. 1598 D. 1645
Answer: B. 1565
50. Which group of people is not known to have had access to the areas within the king’s enclosure?
A. Ordinary men B. Women C. Children D. All of the above
Answer: D. All of the above
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