Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 12 (Arts) History (Themes in Indian History) chapter 9 “Colonialism and Rural Society: Evidence from Official Reports”. However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.
Introduction
The British colonial rule in India had a profound impact on the economic landscape of the country, particularly in the realm of agriculture and land revenue. As the British East India Company sought to expand its territories, it heavily relied on land revenue and taxes imposed on Indian peasants to fund its ventures. These revenue policies had significant implications for the Indian society, as they determined wealth distribution, land ownership, and access to resources. Peasants, who were the primary contributors to land revenue, often found themselves facing financial hardships, which in turn influenced their actions and reactions to the imposed laws. The dynamics between the colonizers and the colonized, as well as the outcomes of the British revenue policies, can be better understood by examining historical documents such as revenue records, surveys, journals, and reports from government commissions. These sources provide valuable insights into the experiences of rural society under British rule, revealing the complexity and multifaceted consequences of colonial economic policies on India’s development.
Textual questions and answers
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is the meaning of land settlement?
Answer: The process by which the government officials determine the amount of land revenue payable is called the land settlement. The land settlement consists in the determination of (a) the share of the produce or the rental to which the state is entitled, (b) the person or the persons who are liable to pay, and (c) the records of all private rights and interests in the land.
2. Give two instances of financial loss to the East India Company due to the permanent settlement.
Answer:
- The company had fixed exorbitant rates of land revenue, which were difficult for the landlords to collect from their tenants or ryots.
- The lands of many landlords were sold due to non-payment of the fixed amount of land revenue to the company.
3. Why did peasants raise loans?
Answer: To meet their urgent needs, such as payment of revenue.
4. How were the moneylenders the cause of poverty of peasants?
Answer: The moneylenders manipulated laws, forged documents and accounts, and charged exorbitant rates of interest, leading to the seizure of peasant’s property and deepening their poverty.
5. How did the Zamindars exploit the ryots with the introduction of Permanent Settlement in Bengal?
Answer: The landlords charged arbitrary rents from their ryots and could collect as much revenue from their tenants as they wished.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the life of the peasants and craftsmen in the 18th century in India.
Answer: The majority of the people lived in the villages which were economically self-sufficient. The agricultural produce of the village was used to fulfil the needs of the people. The cultivators paid the land revenue to the state, and the government officials did not interfere in the affairs of the villages. Besides the farmers, every village had a carpenter, blacksmith, weaver, cobbler, washerman, and hairdresser. All these craftsmen fulfilled the needs of the villagers. However, British economic policies gave a severe blow to the village economy. The farmers had to pay a fixed amount of land revenue to the Company in cash. The farmers had to produce crops not only to fulfil their own needs but also to produce new types of crops to sell in the market. Now the farmer’s object was to earn money so that he might be able to pay the land revenue to the government at the fixed time. Sometimes he had to raise a loan to pay the land revenue. Consequently, the new tradition of commercialisation of agriculture came into existence(9).
2. Why was the Jotedar a powerful figure in many areas of Bengal?
Answer: In the end of the eighteenth century, when the Zamindars were facing a crisis, a group of rich peasants was busy consolidating its position in the villages. By the early nineteenth century, the Jotedars had become the owners of vast areas of land. Some had acquired as much as several thousand acres of land. They were moneylenders, controlled trade, and exercised immense power over the poor cultivators of the region. Most of their land was cultivated through sharecroppers (adhiyars or bargadars). They brought their own ploughs, worked in the fields, and gave over half the product to the Jotedars after the crop was reaped. In the villages, the Jotedars were more powerful than the Zamindars. The Zamindars often lived in the urban areas, but the Jotedars lived in the village and exercised direct control over a large section of the poor villagers. They resisted forcefully the efforts of the Zamindars to increase the Jama (revenue demand) of the village. They prevented Zamindar’s officials from performing their duties and mobilised ryots who were dependent on them. The Jotedars also deliberately delayed payment of revenue to the Zamindar. In case the estates of the Zamindars were auctioned for failure to make payments, the Jotedars were often the purchasers(9).
3. Examine the circumstances that led to the passing of ‘Limitation Laws’ by the British in 1859.
Answer: The ryots complained of moneylenders manipulating laws and forging documents and accounts. In 1859, the British Government enacted a Limitation Law that laid down that the loan bonds would be valid for only three years. It aimed to check the accumulation of interest over time. The moneylenders forced the ryots to sign a new bond every three years. When the new bond was signed, the unpaid balance, i.e., the original loan and the accumulated interest was entered as the principal. A new set of interest charged was calculated. In the petitions that the Deccan Riot Commission collected, the ryots wrote how the processes worked and what unjust methods were adopted by the moneylenders to short-charge the ryot. For example, they refused to give receipts when loans were repaid, entered fictitious figures in bonds, bought the peasant’s harvest at low prices, and ultimately took over the helpless peasant’s property. The bonds and deeds were considered as a part of the new oppressive system. The peasants came to associate their miseries with the new regime of bonds and deeds. The peasants were made to sign and put thumb impressions on the documents, not allowing them to know what they were actually signing. They had no idea of the terms which the moneylender inserted in the bonds(9).
4. Describe the main features of the permanent settlement of Bengal introduced by Cornwallis.
Answer: The main features of the permanent settlement of Bengal introduced by Cornwallis were:
- The Zamindars who collected the land revenue were made the owners of the land.
- The Zamindars had to pay a fixed amount of revenue to the Company. It could neither be increased nor decreased later.
- It was decided that the Government would have a claim to the 10/11 of the gross revenue, the balance being kept by the Zamindars. The Government assured the Zamindars that except for the land revenue, they would not have to pay any other tax or give any gift or nazrana to the Government.
- In case any Zamindar failed to pay the fixed amount of revenue, the Government had the right to confiscate some part of his land holding to recover the amount due.
- The farmers or the ryots were made the tenants of the Zamindars.
- The Zamindars were deprived of their administrative and judicial powers. The government assured the Zamindars that it would not interfere with their traditions.
5. How did Zamindars manage to retain their control over their Zamindaris?
Answer: The Zamindars devised ways of surviving the pressures on them and saving their estates from possible auction. By a series of manoeuvres, they made fictitious sales. For instance, the Raja of Burdawan first transferred some of his Zamindari to his mother since the East India Company had decreed that the property of women would not be taken over. The second method was the manipulation of auctions by the agents of the Zamindar. The Zamindars deliberately withheld the demand of the Company and allowed the payment of unpaid balances to accumulate. When the state officials auctioned a part of the estate, the Zamindar’s men bought the property, outbidding other purchasers, but subsequently refused to pay up the purchase money. The Company had to resell the estate. Once again, the Zamindar’s agents bought the estate, and once again they did not pay the purchase money, and once again there was an auction. This process was repeated endlessly, exhausting the state and the auction. Ultimately, the estate was sold back to the Zamindar at a low price. The Zamindar never paid the full revenue demand. The Company rarely recovered the unpaid balances that had accumulated. Fictitious transactions happened on a large scale. During 1793-1801, four big Zamindars of Bengal, including Raja of Burdawan, made benami purchases which amounted to 30 lakh rupees. Of total sales at the auctions, more than 15 per cent were fictitious.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. What changes came in the condition of agriculture in India in the 19th century?
Answer: The British rule in the 19th century brought significant changes to Indian agriculture. Economic exploitation became rampant as the British implemented policies to maximize revenue extraction. Traditional village economies, which were largely self-sufficient, were disrupted. Farmers had to pay fixed land revenue in cash, prompting the need to grow commercial crops like cotton, jute, sugarcane, and wheat for market sale. This led to the commercialisation of agriculture, driven by British industrial demands for raw materials.
The shift to commercial crops initially harmed farmers, who could not compete with mechanised agriculture abroad. They became heavily indebted to moneylenders, who exploited their financial vulnerability. British land revenue systems introduced intermediaries like Zamindars who further exploited peasants by extracting high rents and illegal taxes.
High land revenue demands, fragmentation of landholdings due to personal property laws, and rigid collection methods added to peasants’ woes. Natural calamities like droughts and famines exacerbated their struggles. Additional taxes on daily necessities and the monopoly over forest resources further impoverished them.
By the late 19th century, rural indebtedness soared. Dr. A. R. Desai noted the increasing indebtedness since 1880, reaching a geometric rate. The peasants’ plight led to various movements and the formation of peasant unions, highlighting the oppressive nature of British policies. Despite some efforts by the British government to pass protective laws and establish cooperative credit societies, the problem persisted until independence. Post-independence reforms significantly improved farmers’ conditions, addressing the deep-rooted issues of rural indebtedness and exploitation.
2. Examine the sources of livelihood of the Paharias (hillfolk) of Rajmahal hills. How did they respond to the coming of Santhals?
Answer: The Paharias of the Rajmahal hills lived by hunting, shifting cultivation, gathering forest products, charcoal production, and silk worm rearing. They cleared patches of forest to grow pulses and millets, then moved to new areas after a few years. They collected mahua flowers, cocoons, and resin for sale, relying on the forest for their sustenance. Their life was symbolised by the hoe, which they used for shifting cultivation.
The Paharias were fiercely protective of their land and way of life, resisting any outsider interference. They raided settled communities during scarcity and collected tribute from Zamindars for peace. The British saw the Paharias as savage and unruly, leading to a brutal policy of extermination in the 1780s. Augustus Cleveland later proposed a policy of pacification, offering allowances to Paharia chiefs to maintain order. Many chiefs refused, losing the confidence of their community.
The arrival of the Santhals in the late 18th century posed a new threat to the Paharias. The Santhals, symbolised by the plough, began clearing forests and cultivating the land. Encouraged by the British, who sought to increase revenue and establish settled agriculture, the Santhals displaced the Paharias from the lower hills. The Paharias retreated deeper into the hills, continuing their resistance.
The conflict between the Paharias and the Santhals, representing the battle between the hoe and the plough, marked a prolonged struggle for land and resources. The Santhals’ expansion into the Rajmahal hills ultimately forced the Paharias to adapt or retreat further into the mountains, significantly altering their traditional way of life.
3. What were the defects in the British Land Revenue Policy in India?
Answer: The British Land Revenue Policy in India had several critical defects. One major flaw was the introduction of intermediaries, such as Zamindars, who stood between the government and the cultivators. These intermediaries, loyal to the British, exploited the peasants by extracting high rents and illegal taxes. Land became a saleable commodity, leading to widespread impoverishment among peasants who often lost their land due to inability to pay taxes.
Despite some efforts to improve peasant conditions, the British government’s investments were skewed. They spent heavily on constructing railways to serve their interests but invested meagre amounts in irrigation works that could benefit agriculture. Laws passed to protect peasants’ interests were insufficient and often ineffective. Landlords and moneylenders continued to exploit the peasants unabated.
The government failed to provide adequate relief during natural calamities such as droughts, floods, or famines. Consequently, many farmers died from starvation during these periods. The primary aim of the British government was to extract as much land revenue as possible, benefiting the moneylenders and landlords while neglecting the peasants’ welfare.
The rigid methods of revenue collection added to the peasants’ miseries. They had to pay land revenue promptly, regardless of harvest quality. In times of low or failed harvests, their land was often put up for sale to recover arrears, leading to further loss of land. The additional burden of taxes on daily necessities impoverished farmers further.
Forests becoming state monopolies forced peasants to buy firewood, leading to a paucity of cow dung as manure, thereby decreasing agricultural productivity. The fragmentation of landholdings due to personal property laws made cultivation uneconomical. The overall policy shattered the rural economy, leaving peasants impoverished and indebted, with little hope of state assistance to improve their conditions.
4. What were the causes of Deccan Riots of 1875? How did the Government suppress them?
Answer: The Deccan Riots of 1875 were primarily caused by the extreme poverty and indebtedness of cultivators in Poona and Ahmednagar districts. Marwari moneylenders exploited the peasants, charging exorbitant interest rates and often seizing their lands. The agrarian distress was compounded by falling agricultural prices and high revenue demands from the government. The situation became untenable, leading to widespread discontent among the peasants.
The riots began in May 1875 at Supa village in Poona, where peasants looted and burned the properties of moneylenders, demanding their debt bonds and account books, which they then destroyed. The violence quickly spread to 33 villages, resulting in the arrest of 951 individuals and the conviction of over 500 by the courts. The primary objective of the rioters was to destroy the documents that symbolised their indebtedness, resorting to violence only when creditors refused to comply.
In response to the riots, the British government appointed a commission in 1875 to investigate the causes. The Deccan Riots Commission attributed the unrest to the severe indebtedness and poverty of the cultivators, exacerbated by the cotton boom during the American Civil War and its subsequent collapse. The commission’s report highlighted the exploitative practices of moneylenders and the rigid revenue collection methods that left peasants with no recourse but to rebel.
To suppress the riots, the government introduced the Ryotwari settlement in the Bombay Deccan, which aimed to individualise land ownership and streamline revenue collection. However, this system benefitted the government and moneylenders more than the peasants. High revenue demands and falling cotton prices left peasants unable to meet financial obligations, deepening their indebtedness.
Despite some measures to moderate revenue demands and establish cooperative credit societies, the fundamental issues of exploitation and high taxation persisted. The government’s suppression of the riots was more about maintaining order than addressing the underlying causes of peasant distress, leaving the agrarian community’s problems largely unresolved.
5. What were the causes of rural indebtedness in India? What measures were taken by the government to ameliorate the condition of the peasants?
Answer: Rural indebtedness in India was driven by several factors. High land revenue demands and rigid collection methods imposed by the British government forced many peasants to take loans from moneylenders. The fragmentation of landholdings due to inheritance laws made cultivation uneconomical, further impoverishing the peasants. Additional taxes on essential goods and the state’s monopoly over forest resources added to their financial burden.
Natural calamities like droughts, floods, and famines worsened the situation. During such crises, peasants were forced to borrow even more to survive and pay taxes. The moneylenders exploited this vulnerability, often seizing land and property when loans could not be repaid. The British revenue laws supported the moneylenders, allowing them to acquire land easily, which pushed peasants into deeper poverty.
The British government did take some measures to address rural indebtedness. Tenancy Acts were passed to protect peasants’ interests, and Cooperative Credit Societies were established to provide low-interest loans. The government also prohibited the sale of land by cultivators to non-agriculturists. However, these measures were often insufficient and poorly implemented.
The Indian National Congress and other nationalist movements played a crucial role in advocating for peasants’ rights. Peasant unions and committees were formed to fight against exploitation and demand better conditions. Significant movements emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha in 1936, which became a powerful voice for the agrarian community.
Despite these efforts, the problem of rural indebtedness remained largely unresolved until independence. Post-independence, comprehensive land reforms and agricultural policies were implemented to improve peasants’ conditions. The establishment of institutional credit mechanisms, reduction of land revenue, and introduction of modern agricultural practices significantly alleviated the plight of farmers. These measures led to a substantial improvement in the economic conditions of the rural population, addressing the deep-rooted issues of indebtedness and exploitation.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Who was David Ricardo?
A. Diplomat B. Historian C. Economist D. None of the above
Answer: C. Economist
2. When was the Cotton Supply Association established in Britain?
A. 1857 B. 1859 C. 1860 D. 1862
Answer: B. 1859
3. How much cotton was imported from India to Britain?
A. 60% B. 70% C. 80% D. 90%
Answer: D. 90%
4. “The loan bonds signed between moneylenders and ryots would have validity for only three years.” This was mentioned in which law?
A. Deccan Riot Report 1857 B. Limitation Law 1859 C. Both (a) and (b) D. None of the above
Answer: B. Limitation Law 1859
5. When was Manchester Cotton Company formed?
A. 1850 B. 1855 C. 1859 D. 1860
Answer: D. 1860
Competency-Based Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Arrange the following in chronological order and select the correct order from the following options:
I. Santhal Rebellion
II. Riots in Deccan Villages
III. Permanent Settlement in Bengal
IV. First Revenue Settlement in Bombay Deccan
(a) I, II, III, and IV
(b) I, II, IV, and III
(c) II, IV, I, and III
(d) IV, III, I, and II
Answer: (d) IV, III, I, and II
2. Identify the East India Company’s officer with the help of the following information:
(i) Was a physician of Lord Wellesley
(ii) He surveyed Bengal
(iii) He established a zoo in Bengal
(a) Colin Mackenzie
(b) John Marshall
(c) Marco Polo
(d) Francis Buchanan
Answer: (d) Francis Buchanan
3. Consider the following statements regarding the hillfolk/paharias during the 18th century and choose the correct statements:
A. They lived around Rajmahal hills.
B. They were hunters, food gatherers, and shifting cultivators.
C. They were simple people and never harmed the permanent settlers of plains.
D. They used to grow a variety of pulses and millets for their consumption.
Choose the correct option:
(a) A, B, C
(b) B
(c) A, B, D
(d) A, B, C, D
Answer: (c) A, B, D
4. Match the following:
(i) Deccan Riot – (A) 1855-56
(ii) Santhal Riot – (B) 1875
(iii) Regulating Act – (C) 1818
(iv) First permanent settlement in Bombay (Deccan) – (D) 1773
Options:
(a) (i) (C), (ii) (D), (iii) (A), (iv) (B)
(b) (i) (B), (ii) (A), (iii) (D), (iv) (C)
(c) (i) (A), (ii) (B), (iii) (C), (iv) (D)
(d) (i) (D), (ii) (C), (iii) (B), (iv) (A)
Answer: (b) (i) (B), (ii) (A), (iii) (D), (iv) (C)
5. Why did the British favour the Santhals more than the Paharias?
(a) Paharias were a nomadic group whereas the Santhals were a civilised settled population.
(b) Paharias refused to practice shifting agriculture which the Santhals agreed to do.
(c) Santhals agreed to collect mahua from the forests which the Paharias denied.
(d) Santhals were ready to clear forests and plough which the Paharias refused.
Answer: (d) Santhals were ready to clear forests and plough which the Paharias refused.
Case-based Questions
1 Read the following case carefully and answer the following questions
The Jotedars of Dinajpur
Buchanan described the ways in which the jotedars of Dinajpur in North Bengal resisted being disciplined by the zamindar and undermined his power: Landlords do not like this class of men, but it’s evident that they are absolutely necessary. Unless the landlords themselves would advance money for their necessitous tenantry… The jotedars who cultivate large portions of lands are very refractory and know that the zamindars have no power over them. They pay only a few rupees on account of their revenue and then fall in balance almost every installment; they hold more lands than they are entitled to by their pattas (deeds of contract). Should the zamindar’s officers, in consequence, summon them to cutcherry and detain them for one or two hours with a view to reprimand them, they immediately go and complain at the Fouzdarry Thanna (Police Station) for imprisonment and at the munsiff’s (a judicial officer at the lower court) cutcherry for being dishonoured, and whilst the causes continue unsettled, they instigate the petty ryots not to pay their dues.
(i) Who were jotedars?
Answer: Jotedars were rich peasants who owned large tracts of land and were able to exert control over the smaller ryots (peasants) in their region.
(ii) What changes took place in the condition of the jotedars in the 19th century?
Answer: In the 19th century, the jotedars became more powerful and were able to resist the authority of the zamindars effectively. They cultivated large portions of land and often did not pay the full revenue they owed, using their influence to avoid punishment.
(iii) How did the jotedars challenge the authority of the zamindars?
Answer: The jotedars challenged the authority of the zamindars by paying only a small portion of their due revenue, holding more land than their deeds entitled them to, and using legal and administrative systems to avoid punishment and assert their independence.
2 Read the following case carefully and answer the following questions
On clearance and settled cultivation
Passing through one village in the lower Rajmahal hills, Buchanan wrote: The view of the country is exceedingly fine, the cultivation, especially the narrow valleys of rice winding in all directions, the cleared lands with scattered trees, and the rocky hills are in perfection. All that is wanted is some appearance of progress in the area and a vastly extended and improved cultivation, of which the country is highly susceptible. Plantations of Asan and Palas, for Tessa (Tassar silk worms) and Lac, should occupy the place of woods to as great an extent as the demand will admit; the remainder might be all cleared, and the greater part cultivated, while what is not fit for the purpose, might rear Palmyra (palmyra) and Mowa (mahua).
(i) Who was Buchanan?
(a) Physician
(b) Surveyor
(c) Cartographer
(d) None of these
Answer: (a) Physician
(ii) Which hill is mentioned by Buchanan in this excerpt?
(a) Vindhyas
(b) Satpura
(c) Rajmahal
(d) Aravali
Answer: (c) Rajmahal
(iii) Which crop was cultivated by the local inhabitants of Rajmahal hills?
(a) Wheat
(b) Barley
(c) Rice
(d) Maize
Answer: (c) Rice
(iv) Name the hill folk who lived in the Rajmahal hills.
(a) Paharias
(b) Mundas
(c) Gonds
(d) Bhils
Answer: (a) Paharias
(v) Which tribal groups were considered settlers in the Rajmahal hills?
(a) Paharias
(b) Santhals
(c) Bhils
(d) Gonds
Answer: (b) Santhals
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What were the main sources of income for the British East India Company in India?
Answer: The main sources of income for the British East India Company in India were the land revenue and taxes on the peasantry.
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33. How did the peasants fight for their rights and demands?
Answer: The peasants established committees in the villages to protect their interests, linked with big peasant unions, and participated in the establishment of organizations such as the Agricultural Labour Union, Central Farmers Union, and All India Kisan Sabha. They started a vigorous movement against imperialist and feudal forces, took part in the freedom struggle, and only after India’s independence was the problem of rural indebtedness solved to a great extent, leading to improvement in their conditions.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. Which treaty granted the British East India Company the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa?
A. Treaty of Allahabad B. Treaty of Amritsar C. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle D. Treaty of Bassein
Answer: A. Treaty of Allahabad
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65. What was the estimated total rural debt in India in 1911?
A. 100 crore B. 300 crore C. 500 crore D. 1000 crore
Answer: B. 300 crore
Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger. He manages Online Free Notes and reads Victorian literature. His favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte and he hopes to travel the world. Get in touch with him by sending him a friend request.
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Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger. He manages Online Free Notes and reads Victorian literature. His favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte and he hopes to travel the world. Get in touch with him by sending him a friend request.
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