Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 11 (Arts) History (Themes in World History) Chapter 3 Section A: Early Societies- Early Cities: (Focus on Iraq, 3rd Millennium BC, Growth of Towns, Nature of Early Urban Societies and Historians’ Debate on uses of Writing). However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.
Summary
Early humans lived in groups, with the family as the basic unit of society. As they became food producers and led a more settled life, family units began to form villages with mud houses surrounded by protective fences. These villages were often located near river valleys for easy access to water for agriculture.
Over time, some villages grew into larger settlements as new occupations and trade emerged. Surplus food could be exchanged for other goods, and craftsmen began to live together, leading to the growth of towns. The first phase of city growth began with the river valley civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China around 5,000-6,000 years ago. These towns became centers for merchants, craftsmen, traders, and government officials, leading to a division between urban and rural life.
Cities have generally grown due to economic growth, natural increase, and rural-urban migration. People move to cities for economic opportunities, while factors like droughts, famines, or rural poverty may “push” them away from the countryside. Cities have historically been centers of high civilization, receptive to new ideas and change, and focused on wealth accumulation and commerce. The decline of commerce can lead to the decline or disappearance of a city, as seen in European urban centers between the 5th and 9th centuries AD due to increasing trade hazards in the Mediterranean Sea.
Exercise/textual questions and answers
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Write the names of popular languages in Mesopotamia.
Answer: Sumerian, Akkadian
2. Why was Mesopotamia important for Europeans?
Answer: European urban centres dwindled and almost disappeared because of the increasing hazards to safe trading on the Mediterranean Sea brought by the Barbarian and Muslim invasions.
3. When did archaeological discovery take place in Mesopotamia? In which two places was excavation work done?
Answer: Archaeological discovery took place in the 1850s. The two places where excavation work was done are Ur and Uruk.
4. When was cultivation in Mesopotamia started?
Answer: Cultivation in Mesopotamia started around 5000 BCE.
5. In which part of Mesopotamia (Iraq) were cities and writing systems emerged?
Answer: Cities and writing systems emerged in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq).
Short Answer Questions
1. Explain the concept of city.
Answer: We generally think of the city as a “modern” or recent development. But cities have existed for thousands of years and have their roots in the great river civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. The English word “city” comes from the Latin word “Civitas”, which describes a highly organised community like the city-states of ancient Greece. The life of the Greeks in the city-states was completely absorbed in the life of the city. The city provided a man with his religion, his amusements, his education and sought to satisfy his every need.
2. Write a short note on ancient society.
Answer: The life of early man was revolutionised when he became a food grower and began to lead a settled life. The early men lived in groups, but the basic unit of society was the family. It was the earliest form of society. The early phases of the development of man and society have come to light by the discoveries of the archaeologists which they have made from the study of fossils, remains of bones, stone tools and cave paintings.
3. How did village come into existence?
Answer: Villages came into existence when men became food growers and life became more settled. Families began to build mud houses with thatched roofs for shelter and protection. These houses were close to one another and surrounded by a common fence of prickly bushes or mud walls. A number of families constituted a village. The villages were small, and the huts were close to each other.
4. How were villages transformed into cities?
Answer: The number of people living in the villages gradually increased. As the needs of the villagers increased, new occupations were started. These villages became prosperous because they were now producing more food than they required for their subsistence. They could now exchange their surplus food for other things such as cloth, pottery, ornaments, etc. It was no longer necessary for every family living in the village to work in the fields and produce its own food. The weavers, carpenters, or potters exchanged the articles which they produced for food from those families which produced food. With the growth of new professions and an increase in trade, the craftsmen began to live together, and thus big villages grew into towns.
5. What were the reasons for migration of people from village to cities?
Answer: People move to the cities for various reasons. But the most significant reason is economic. When a city’s economy is prospering, it attracts people from the villages. The promise of jobs and comforts, glamour and glitter, attracts people to the cities. There are also “Push” factors. Droughts, famines, or exploitation of farmers can cause extreme rural poverty and that “pushes” people out of the villages and to settle in the towns.
6. Write a short note on the famous city ‘Uruk’.
Answer: Uruk was one of the earliest towns of Mesopotamia. It grew to the extent of 250 hectares around 3,000 BC and had a defensive wall. War captives and other people worked for the temple and public utility work, being paid rations. There were technical advances at Uruk around 3,000 BC, with the use of bronze tools and the construction of brick columns. The temple halls had beautiful paintings, and there were superb achievements in imported stone sculpture. Uruk was a large and beautiful city, a trading centre with flourishing industries.
Long Answer Questions
1. After studying the previous chapter of this book, describe the growth of early societies.
Answer: The growth of early societies involved significant transitions and developments:
Transition from Nomadic to Settled Life: About 10,000 years ago, humans began shifting from nomadic lifestyles to settled agriculture. They learned to cultivate crops like wheat, barley, peas, and pulses, and domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, and cattle. This led to the establishment of more permanent settlements.
Development of Villages and Towns: Permanent settlements encouraged the construction of durable structures in villages, often located in river valleys. Surplus food production led to trade and new professions. Craftspeople exchanged goods for food, facilitating the growth of villages into towns .
Rise of Early Cities: Around 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, river valley civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China marked the first phase of city growth. These towns became centers for merchants, craftsmen, traders, and officials .
Factors Influencing Urban Growth: Cities grew due to economic opportunities, natural increase, and rural-urban migration. Prosperous cities attracted people from villages, while droughts and rural poverty pushed people towards urban areas .
Significance of Early Cities: Cities like those in Mesopotamia were crucial for their contributions to trade and the development of writing systems. Early cities such as Ur and Uruk exemplified complex social hierarchies, economic activities, and cultural developments .
2. In the beginning of urban life, which new institutions came into existence?
Answer: The early settlers began to build and rebuild temples at some selected spots in their villages. Temples were the residences of various gods such as the moon God of Ur or of Inanna of the Goddess of love and war. When bricks began to be used for the construction of temples, the temples became larger with several rooms around open courtyards. The worshippers of God brought grain, curd and fish. The God was considered as the owner of agricultural fields, the fisheries and the local community. Records of production and the distribution and allotment of grains, plough animals, bread, beer, fish, etc. were maintained. The temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution. The early Mesopotamian countryside saw repeated conflicts over land and water. In the regions in which there were continuous warfare, the chiefs who were successful in war, obliged their followers by distributing loot, and took prisoners from the defeated groups and employed them as their guards and servants. Thus, they could increase their influence and clout. At first, such settlers did not settle at one place. But later, these leaders thought of increasing the well-being of the community by creating new institutions and practices. The victorious chiefs began to offer precious booty to gods and thus beautify community temples. They sent their men to fetch fine stone and metal for the benefit of gods and the temples. They organised distribution of temple wealth in an efficient way. In the cycle of development, the leaders encouraged the settlement of villagers close to themselves, to be able to rapidly raise an army. Besides, the people would feel safe if they lived in close proximity to one another.
3. Describe the origin of the cities and the growth of urban societies.
Answer: These villages were often found in the river valleys, where water was easily available for their crops. The number of people living in the villages gradually increased. As the needs of the villagers increased, new occupations were started. These villages became prosperous because they were now producing more food than they required for their subsistence. They could now exchange their surplus food for other things such as cloth, pottery, ornaments, etc. It was no longer necessary for every family living in the village to work in the fields and produce its own food. The weavers or carpenters or potters exchanged their articles which they produced for food from those families which produced food. With the growth of new professions and increase in trade, the craftsmen began to live together and thus big villages grew into towns. The beginnings of living of the people in the towns is generally taken as the start of civilisation. The first phase in the growth of cities began between five and six thousand years ago with settlements which grew into what we call river valley civilisations of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Egypt, India and China. These towns no more depended on agriculture and domestic animals. As the civilisation grew in size and trade routes grew in numbers, these towns became the centres for merchants, craftsmen, traders and government officials. The division between “town” and “country”, “urban” and “rural” had begun. A similar path was taken by later civilisations such as the Greek, Iranian, Roman and Great Zimbabwe.
4. On which basis can we classify urbanisation in Mesopotamia? Explain.
Answer: Settlements began to develop in southern Mesopotamia from 5,000 BC. Some of these settlements gradually developed into earliest cities. These cities were of various kinds (i) cities which developed around temples (ii) those that developed as centres of trade (iii) imperial cities. The early settlers began to build and rebuild temples at some selected spots in their villages. Temples were the residences of various gods such as the moon God of Ur or of Inanna of the Goddess of love and war. When bricks began to be used for the construction of temples, the temples became larger with several rooms around open courtyards. The worshippers of God brought grain, curd and fish. The God was considered as the owner of agricultural fields, the fisheries and the local community. Records of production and the distribution and allotment of grains, plough animals, bread, beer, fish, etc. were maintained. The temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution.
5. Describe briefly the features of early cities.
Answer: Ur was one of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia excavated in 1830’s. The ordinary houses of this town had narrow winding streets. It indicates that the wheeled carts could not have reached many of the houses. Narrow winding streets and the irregular shapes of house plots also indicate that there was no system of town planning. There were no street drains or sewage system of the kind which existed in contemporary Mohenjodaro. Instead, in the inner courtyards of the Ur houses, there were drains and clay pipes. It is presumed that house roofs slopped inwards and rainwater was channelled via the drainpipes into sumps in the inner courtyards. In the Ur houses, light came into the rooms not from the windows but from doorways opening into the courtyards. This would have given privacy to the families living there. The omen tablets at Ur have recorded many superstitions about the houses. For instance, it was believed that a raised threshold brought wealth; a front door that did not open towards another house was luck but if the main wooden door opened outwards, the wife would be a torment to her husband. The Ur town had a cemetery which had the graves of royalty and commoners. But a few individuals were also found buried under the floors of ordinary houses.
Uruk was one of the earliest towns of Mesopotamia. As mentioned earlier, the leaders encouraged the settlement of villagers close to them, to be able to rapidly get an army together. Uruk was one of the towns which had grown from the settlement of the villagers. At Uruk, we find depictions of armed heroes and their victims. Careful archaeological surveys have shown that around 3,000 BC when Uruk grew to the enormous extent of 250 hectares, it was twice as large as Mohenjodaro would be in later centuries. Uruk had also a defensive wall. From about 4,000 BC to about AD 400 C, and by about 2800 BC the city had extended to 400 hectares. The captives of war and other people were required to work for the temple and public utility work of the town. Those who were put to work were paid rations. A large number of ration lists have been found which give the names of the workers and the quantities of grain, cloth or oil allotted to them. The archaeologists have estimated that one of the temples took 1,500 men working ten hours a day. The temple took five years to build. Hundreds of people were employed to build the temple. There were also technical advances at Uruk around 3,000 BC. Bronze tools began to be used for various crafts. The architects learnt to construct brick columns because no suitable wood was available to build large halls. The temple halls had beautiful paintings, painted in different colours. In sculpture, there were superb achievements in imported stones. In brief, Uruk was a large and beautiful city. It was a trading centre and had flourishing industries.
Is the above answer too long? Try the shorter answer below..
Multiple Choice Questions
1. On the basis of origin and development in how many parts were cities divided?
A. one B. two C. three D. six
Answer: C. three
2. Who founded the city of Babylon?
A. Sargon of Akkad B. Enmerkar C. Gilgamesh D. None of these
Answer: D. None of these
3. Who was Zimrilim?
A. King of Mari B. Chief Minister of Uruk C. King of Kerkuk D. All the above
Answer: A. King of Mari
4. Ziggurat was:
A. Temple of rain god B. Horse of war C. A type of weapon D. The main gate of the city
Answer: A. Temple of rain god
5. Ziggurat means:
A. Name of the god B. Hill of Heaven C. Palace of Uruk D. Administrative System
Answer: B. Hill of Heaven
Case-based Question
Read the following passage and answer the questions.
We know from the legal texts (disputes, inheritance matters, etc.) that in Mesopotamian society the nuclear family (a nuclear family comprises of a man, his wife and children) was the norm, although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family. We know a little about the procedures for marriage. When a declaration was made about the willingness to marry, the bride’s parents gave their consent to the marriage. Then a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. When the wedding took place, gifts were exchanged by both parties, who ate together and made offerings in a temple. When her mother-in-law came to fetch her, the bride was given her share of the inheritance by her father. The father’s house, herds and fields etc., were inherited by the sons.
1. What types of families were common in the Mesopotamian society?
Answer: In Mesopotamian society, generally the families were nuclear. But in some cases, married sons and their families resided with their parents.
2. What is the meaning of a nuclear family?
Answer: A nuclear family comprises of a man, his wife and children.
3. Who was the head of the family?
Answer: The father was the head of the family.
4. What do we know about the procedure for marriage in the Mesopotamian society?
Answer: A marriage was made when the bride’s parents gave their consent to the marriage. Gift was then given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. At the time of marriage, gifts were exchanged by both the parties. They ate together and made offerings to the temple. When her mother-in-law came to fetch her, the bride was given her share of the inheritance by her father. But father’s house, herds, fields, etc. were inherited by the sons.
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What is the origin of the English word “city”?
Answer: The English word “city” comes from the Latin word “Civitas”.
53. Examine the significance of the development of writing in Mesopotamia and its influence on future civilizations.
Answer: The development of writing in Mesopotamia was a groundbreaking achievement with far-reaching significance, influencing future civilizations in numerous ways. The Mesopotamians developed a pictographic form of writing around 3200 BC, which evolved into the cuneiform script by 2600 BC. This system of writing enabled the recording of transactions, legal matters, historical events, and literary works, laying the foundation for advanced administration and cultural development.
One of the primary impacts of writing was on administration. The ability to document transactions, manage land transfers, and keep detailed records allowed for efficient governance of the complex urban centers. Writing also facilitated the creation of legal codes and the documentation of royal decrees, ensuring that laws and policies were communicated clearly and consistently.
Culturally, the development of writing enriched Mesopotamian society by preserving and transmitting knowledge. Literature flourished with the documentation of epic poems, hymns, and historical narratives. The preservation of scientific knowledge, including mathematical and astronomical data, contributed to future advancements in these fields. The legacy of writing extended beyond Mesopotamia, influencing subsequent civilizations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.
The Mesopotamians’ contributions to time reckoning and mathematics, including the division of the year into 12 months, the day into 24 hours, and the hour into 60 minutes, were transmitted to later cultures and remain in use today. The ability to record and disseminate knowledge across generations ensured that the intellectual and cultural achievements of Mesopotamia were not lost to time.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. From which language does the English word “city” originate?
A. Greek
B. Latin
C. Chinese
D. Egyptian
Answer: B. Latin
60. What was the importance of schools in Mesopotamian urban institutions?
A. Teaching agricultural techniques
B. Training soldiers
C. Reading and copying earlier written tablets
D. Building monuments
Answer: C. Reading and copying earlier written tablets
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